The various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were founded by immigrants from northern continental Europe who landed and settled in different parts of England during the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous early settlements, described in the 11th century Tribal Hidage[1], grouped together over time into seven main kingdoms. The kingdom of Kent was settled principally by Jutes, the kingdoms of East Anglia and Northumbria by Angles, and the kingdoms of Essex (East Saxons), Mercia, Sussex (South Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons) mainly by Saxons, although the precise origin of the settlers is open to debate as discussed below.

The traditional descents of kings of these seven kingdoms are given in outline form in different parts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, of which the first compilation is dated to the 9th century[2], more than three hundred years after the arrival of the settlers. Information on the first Anglo-Saxon kings is also found in earlier written sources, including the De Excidio Brittaniae of Gildas (probably dating from the mid-6th century) and Bede's Ecclesiastical History (completed in [731]). In addition, the main religious houses produced king-lists and genealogies which were ultimately copied into the later sources, the largest surviving group of which is the so-called Anglian collection, dated by Dumville to the later 8th century[3].

All these primary sources relied heavily on oral recollection, no doubt expanded with the retelling. The significant delay before the written recording of events inspires little confidence in the factual accuracy of the documentation. In addition, many details are found only in much later post-conquest sources, such as Florence of Worcester and William of Malmesbury, and even the late 13th century Roger of Wendover, although the last named sacrifices credibility by including material on King Arthur interspersed with his record of the early Anglo-Saxon kings. It is not known what earlier sources, now disappeared, may have been available to these later historians, so their narratives relating to the Anglo-Saxon period cannot be dismissed entirely.

In assessing the reliability of the available information, it is useful to consider the material in four successive periods, which reflect different phases in the development of the early kingdoms before the emergence of Wessex as the primary power in the early 9th century.

1. The mythical ancestry. The settlers brought with them from northern Germany, or created in their adopted homeland, mythical traditions of descent of their leaders from gods in Norse mythology. It is not known when these were first consigned to writing, but it is clear that by that time they must already have acquired something of the quality of folk tales, reflecting the spirit of greatness attributed to past and present chiefs rather than accurate representations of truth. It is interesting to note that no similar lines of descent from deities have been found in any of the sources consulted relating to Saxon leaders on the mainland of northern Germany, although it is true that all such Saxon sources are dated to much later than the corresponding Anglo-Saxon records. In fact, there is generally less interest in descents in these German sources prior to the early 11th century chronicles of Thietmar and the Annalista Saxo, contrasting sharply with the preoccupation with genealogies which prevails in all the early Anglo-Saxon documents. It is unsafe to draw definite conclusions from these observations, but they do suggest a stronger connection between the early invaders and Scandinavia, where the sagas demonstrate a long tradition of interest in genealogical matters. The precise origin of these early newcomers to England will probably never be known with certainty. However, it is not impossible that northern Germany constituted an intermediate point of temporary settlement on a longer journey originating somewhere in Scandinavia. It is clear from the examples of the Goths and the Lombards (discussed in the document HUNGARY) that mass migrations during the early medieval period could involve several stages of settlement before the ultimate destination was reached. Whatever the precise origin of the invaders, it is certain that there is little historical accuracy in the mythical ancestry which is included in the primary sources and is reproduced in this document for general rather than historical interest.

2. Early settlers and first kings. Information about the 5th and 6th century kings is based solely on sources compiled long after the events and is sparse and, in some cases, contradictory. The most interesting question is how far the individuals named as leaders of the immigrant settlers were actual historical figures or whether their names amount to no more than an extension of the mythological descents, in other words where does myth end and fact start. Barbara Yorke[4] highlights the alliterative nature of the names of some of the founding kinsmen (Hengist and Horsa in Kent, Cerdic and Cynric in Wessex), which are reminiscent of foundation legends from other parts of the Indo-European world and suggest only a vague basis of factual accuracy. Two further factors appear relevant in considering this issue. The first is the use of family epithets applied to some of the royal families by the early sources. Bede refers to the family of the kings of the East Angles as Wuffingas, but gives no information about the eponymous Wuffa, their first reputed king, or Tytilus his son, apart from their names[5]. Similarly, the early Kentish kings are called Oiscingas, after Oisc/Æsc son of Hengist, with an equal absence of information about the early named ancestors. Interestingly, the kings of Mercia were known as Icelingas and the royal family of Wessex as Gewisse[6], there being no pretence in either case that the names derived from any other than one of the mythical ancestors. The importance of these "tribal" names is a question which needs further investigation. It is interesting to note a parallel with the early Lombard kings in Pannonia and Italy, four of whom are named in early Lombard sources by reference to a tribal name which is allegedly linked to an early, maybe mythical or semi-mythical, ancestor[7]. One possibility is that the tribal name in fact came first, passed down by longstanding tradition, and that the names of the ancestors were derived from these tribal names as part of the process of elaborating the early tribal history as and when the oral tales were first consigned to writing. The second factor is the process by which genealogies were assigned to 7th and 8th century monarchs who replaced the early dynastic lines, especially in Northumbria and Wessex. This is discussed more fully below in relation to the fourth phase, but in summary the convenience of tracing a line of descent from a remote named ancestor may have prompted an over-enthusiastic scribe either to invent the ancestor in question or use a known person's name in this new context. The dating of events in the early sources adds to the uncertainty. On one level, an obvious observation concerns the inevitable inaccuracy of these dates. However, their unreliability may go beyond inaccuracy. It is possible that the compilers of the early sources saw dates principally as a way of adding credibility to their narratives. If that is correct, there may have been little attempt at accuracy, which suggests that most of the dates are meaningless. Whatever the truth of all this speculation, the only reliable conclusion is that the information included in the available sources on the early settlers and their leaders should be treated with considerable caution.

3. The "core" dynastic period. In the case of each ruling family, a "core" dynastic period can be identified after each kingdom consolidated its rule in its own area of the country. During this period, the sources report that the kingship passed mainly between members of the same family. In most cases the successor is recorded as the son, brother, uncle or first cousin of his predecessor. The length of this core dynastic period varies by kingdom. In East Anglia, successive kings are recorded as having belonged to the same family, with only two exceptions, from the accession of King Rædwald (said to be in 590) until the death of King Æthelberht in 794. Similar continuity is found in Kent, from King Æthelberht (said to have succeeded in 568) to King Eadberht who was deposed around 762. The core dynastic period in Mercia was shorter, lasting from the accession of King Penda in 626 to the death of King Ceolred in 716. The case of Northumbria is complicated by the existence of the rival kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia during the early period, but the accessions between Æthelfrith King of Bernicia (killed in battle in 616) and Osred I (murdered in 716) are recorded as being within the same family. In Wessex, it is difficult to identify any "core" dynastic period at all, as the reported succession is more irregular than in any of these other four kingdoms. The kingdoms of the East Saxons and South Saxons present their own problems, the traditional genealogies of the former being impossible to reconcile chronologically and the surviving information on the latter being sparse. So what of the reliability of the sources for these "core" dynastic periods? Bede's Ecclesiastical History represents a major primary source for the earlier years of these "core" periods, its reliability presumably increasing in relation to events which were within the living memory of the author. Some corroboration is found in the traditional king-lists and genealogies which were ultimately copied into later sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, although Yorke has commented that these show "evident signs of clerical literary embellishment"[8]. More importantly, charter evidence also provides corroboration of family relationships. The snippets of genealogical information contained in the charters were mostly incidental to the primary purpose of the documents, which was principally to record changes in property ownership. It was presumably therefore less susceptible to fabrication by later copiers, even if most surviving charters are later copies. It may even be said that, the greater the embellishment of the property-related information, the greater necessity for the forger to retain accuracy in the genealogical data in order to provide a convincing backdrop for his fraud. As far as charters are concerned, the kingdom of Kent is best represented, with 32 surviving charters dated between 604 and 762. Fourteen charters have survived for Mercia, from 664 to 716. By contrast, no charters have survived for East Anglia, only one for Northumbria and only a handful for Sussex and Essex. Some further corroboration of family relationships in the Anglo-Saxon royal families is provided, at least in the cases of East Anglia, Kent, Mercia and Northumbria, by primary sources from continental Europe. In conclusion, the ability to cross-check some of the information between different primary sources provides some reassurance that the recording of events and individuals during this middle period is more accurate than in the prior periods.

4. The later period. With the end of the "core" dynastic periods, and before the emergence of Wessex as the primary centre of power in the early 9th century, we enter another phase of incompleteness and less reliability in the primary sources. With the passage of time, the position of the royal families in each kingdom became less secure. In Mercia, the last king of the main dynasty died young without direct male heirs. In Northumbria, the last king of the original dynasty was violent and probably mentally unstable. With expansion in population, competitors emerged to challenge the established royal families. Some of these later arrivals are named in the sources without any information about their ancestry. What seem to be dubious descents from earlier monarchs are attributed to other challengers in contemporary sources. The later kings of Northumbria provide a good illustration of this last point. King Osred and his successor King Cenred, who succeeded in 716, are both shown in the traditional genealogies as descendants of Ida first king of Bernicia, who supposedly died in 560. However, Bede, writing in [731], does not mention the ancestry of his patron Ceolwulf King of Northumbria, the brother and ultimate successor of King Cenred, and to whom he claims to have sent a draft copy of his work for comment. Admittedly Bede was concerned primarily with writing ecclesiastical history, but in other parts of his text he does not hesitate to recite descents. The inevitable conclusion is that the ancestry of the brothers Cenred and Ceolwulf was not considered worthy enough to have been reported either by Bede or by his royal patron. If this is correct, it is unlikely that the brothers were truly related to their predecessors. What was then the basis for the subsequently created supposed descent from King Ida, and does it have any validity at all? Was it a way of flattering later monarchs, or did it fulfil a more important role in establishing the credibility of a successor king? It would appear that, by the time such descents were first proposed, the kings in question were long since dead. In any case, the successful challenger to an established royal line would probably owe his immediate accession to force of arms. It is therefore difficult to see the relevance of a written line of descent, which would probably not be widely known to the general public who would have had little access to written records, to a newly-arrived strong king. The key is probably the passage of time and the relative weakness of subsequent candidates for kingship. A new weaker candidate for the monarchy may have sought ways of improving his credentials. In a society which, judging by contemporary documentation, appears to held ancestry in high regard, what better way than to fabricate a more illustrious descent than that of his rivals? For this purpose, there would have been little point in creating a descent only for the current candidate. Creating ancestors for his immediate predecessors would also have been necessary to complete a coherent picture. In such an environment, the more remote the descent, the better, in order to achieve an effective fabrication. Returning to the Northumbrian example, King Ida would have ruled before the "core" dynastic period for Northumbria noted above under phase 3. At the time of the composition of the genealogy, assumed to be no earlier than the later 8th century, there must have been few if any available records concerning kings such as Ida. What would have been easier than to "invent" a younger son of the king and provide a list of names of descendants, completely unrecorded elsewhere? It is noteworthy that King Cenred is allegedly seven generations removed from his supposed common ancestor with King Osred, far greater than the stretch of living memory, which even today would rarely stretch to a grandson recalling his grandfather's recollections of the latter's own grandfather. The claimed descent of King Cenred would therefore have been impossible to verify if challenged. Another important factor which supports the hypothesis is that, with a single exception, there is no record of any line of descent from younger sons of early kings which do not culminate in a reigning monarch. The exception relates to the ancestry of Oswald ætheling of Wessex, who was a strong contender for the throne at the time and who may therefore have needed appropriate ancestors[9]. Another interesting question is whether any challenge would, in any event, have been raised to such fabricated descents. The answer is probably no. In the first place, it is likely that contemporaries would have assumed that such a descent was correct, if postulated. No record has survived in any of the primary sources consulted of such a descent being questioned. In the second place, the precise nature of the descent was probably irrelevant to the contemporary audience, the importance being to establish a link between the current monarch and his illustrious predecessors. It is interesting that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that the direct paternal ancestry of both Æthelheard King of Wessex (died 740) and Beorhtric King of Wessex (died 802) "goes back to Cerdic" without providing any details of the descent in question[10], suggesting that by that time the concept of the descent was probably more important than the detail. In summary, therefore, after the end of the "core" dynastic period in each Anglo-Saxon kingdom, it is probably safer to assume that each small family group of succeeding monarchs was unrelated to its predecessors, unless corroborative evidence exists from other sources to support the existence of such relationships. In the following document, care has been taken to highlight where reported descents are dubious.

The balance of power between the different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England fluctuated over time. Although independent from each other, the different kingdoms appear to have developed a loose confederacy under the leadership of whoever was the most powerful king at the time. Bede names seven kings who, he says, had authority over the southern provinces, south of the river Humber[11]. Stenton suggests "Briton ruler" as an appropriate modern English translation of the term bretwalda[12]. The title is also used in later sources, with variable spellings[13], although it is not certain that it was applied by contemporaries to describe their current rulers. It is noteworthy that the word is not found in any surviving charters. Bede's list is as follows:

Ælle King of the South Saxons (Sussex)
Ceawlin King of the West Saxons (Wessex)
Æthelberht King of Kent
Rædwald King of the East Angles
Edwin King of Northumbria
Oswald King of Northumbria
Oswiu King of Northumbria

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle repeats the list, adding Ecgberht King of Wessex as eighth bretwalda[14], although more than 130 years separated him from Oswiu. The title appears not to have been inherited. Although the appearance of three successive Northumbrian rulers at the end of the list suggests that general acceptance of some form of automatic transmission of the title may have been evolving, it is probably appropriate to assume that each king developed his personal confederacy based on his own network of influence. At the outset, the title does not appear to have been used to describe any real supremacy over the other rulers. With time, its use may have developed into a "first among equals" epithet, with the bretwalda acting (according to Stenton) "as the patron rather than leader of his dependents"[15].

The process of consolidation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms into one was slow, with uncertainty until the early 9th century about which kingdom would eventually dominate. During the mid-8th century, Mercia came to dominate East Anglia, Kent and, more briefly, Wessex. However, the successors of Offa King of Mercia were unable to maintain this momentum and, during the third decade of the 9th century Wessex emerged as the clearly dominant entity, subjugating Sussex and Kent in 824, Mercia the following year, and exacting tribute from Northumbria in 829. Later kings are recorded in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria, although clearly subject to the dominance of Wessex until the Danish invasions of the 860s and 870s. It was not until Edgar "the Peaceable" King of Wessex that the concept of "England" as an entity became settled and the style "King of England" appears frequently in contemporary charters to describe the monarch. Earlier kings are styled "king of the English" or similarly in contemporary documentation, for example Offa King of Mercia was "Offa rex Anglorum" in a 774 charter[16], although Kirby[17] does not consider that this meant that he aspired to lordship over all the Anglo-Saxons or that the significance of the phrase was the same as it would have had in the 10th century. Another area for potential study is provided by the symbols of royal power, for instance the used of a helmet instead of a crown until [900][18].

Charters and testaments are cited in this document by updated "Sawyer" numbers, produced by Dr Susan Kelly, and used as the search tool on The New Regesta Regum Anglorum website[19].

Chapter 1. KINGS of the EAST ANGLES (EAST ANGLIA)

Bede names the three Germanic tribes which invaded Britain as "Saxonibus, Anglis, Iutis", adding that the Angles were ancestors of "Orientales Angli, Mediterranei Angli, Merci, tota Nordanhymbrorum progenies" (people of East Anglia, the Midland Angles, Mercians and Northumbrians)[20]. Bede records that the kings of East Anglia were called "Uuffingas" after "Uuffa", grandfather of King Rædwald[21]. Wuffa and his son are not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in which references to the kings of East Anglia are limited to brief mentions of Rædwald, Eorpwald, Anna, Æthelberht and (St) Edmund. As pointed out in the Introduction, it is possible that Wuffa and his immediate successors were semi-historical figures. The early 7th century King Rædwald is the first king of the East Angles about whom the sources give any information other than his name. The only surviving regnal lists are those in 12th century sources such as William of Malmesbury and Florence of Worcester. The genealogy of Ælfwald King of the East Angles provided by the latter is inconsistent with the version which has survived in the Anglian collection. The early 9th century Historia Brittonum of Nennius sets out a mythical descent of Wuffa from Woden: "Woden/Casser/Titinon/Trigil/Rodmunt/Rippa/Guillem Guercha/Uffa"[22]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives no ancestry of the kings of East Anglia. There are many gaps in our knowledge of the history of the kingdom of East Anglia. For example, nothing is known about any East Anglian kings after the reign of King Aldwulf, alleged to have succeeded in 664, until King Selræd in 747. The succession of the kings who succeeded Selræd and the relationships if any between them are uncertain. East Anglia fell under Mercian domination in the mid-8th century. Although the kingdom of East Anglia survived until 869, when King Edmund was killed by the Danes, no pre-Viking charters have survived, presumably because the invaders destroyed the religious houses which acted as repositories for such documentation[23]. The information from which the genealogy of the kings of East Anglia is reconstructed is therefore sparse and unreliable. Edward "the Elder" King of Wessex conquered East Anglia in [918/21] and expelled the Danes[24].

WUFFA 571-578, TYTTLA 578-599, RÆDWALD 599-617, EORPWALD 617-627

[WUFFA, son of [WEHHA] (-578). Bede names "Uuffa" as father of "Tytili", adding that the kings of East Anglia were called "Uuffingas" from his name[25]. A mythical descent of Wuffa from Woden is set out in the early 9th century Historia Brittonum of Nennius, as shown above[26]. According to the 13th century chronicle of Roger of Wendover, Wuffa's accession is dated to 571 and his death to 578[27]. He is not named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and there must be considerable doubt about his historical existence.] [One child]:

1. [TYTTLA [Titil] (-599). Bede names "Tytili" as son of "Uuffa"[28]. Nennius also names Tytillus as son of Wuffa[29]. He is not named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and, as with his father, there must be considerable doubt whether he ever existed.] [Two children]:

a) RÆDWALD (-[620/27]). Bede records that "rex Reduald" was "filius Tytili", recounting that Æthelberht King of Kent persuaded Rædwald to accept baptism in Kent, but none of his subjects followed him and, encouraged by his wife, that he abjured the faith[30]. King Rædwald supported the claim to the kingdom of Northumbria by Eadwine, son of Ælle King of Deira, who had sought refuge at his court. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Rædwald king of East Anglia killed Æthelfrith King of Northumbria in 617[31]. Bede names "Reduald rex Orientalium Anglorum" as fourth of the kings who had authority over the southern provinces, south of the river Humber, adding that Rædwald had ruled under Æthelberht King of Kent while the latter had lived[32]. This is repeated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[33]. Rædwald is the first East Anglian king about whose actions any information has survived. Bede records that "Redualdum regem Anglorum" defeated and killed Æthelfrith King of Northumbria, supporting the claim of Eadwine to the Northumbrian throne[34], the event dated elsewhere to 616. Yorke comments that it is possible that King Rædwald was buried in the ship discovered at Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge in Suffolk[35]. m as her second husband ---, widow of --- [father of King Sigeberht], daughter of --- (-after 616). The name of King Rædwald's wife is not known. According to Bede, she tempted her husband away from the Christian faith on his return to East Anglia after his baptism[36], although it is possible that this story was inspired by Bede's wish to find a scapegoat for this apparent retreat from Christianity. She encouraged him to attack Æthelfrith King of Northumbria in 616 in support of Eadwine[37]. Her earlier marriage is deduced from William of Malmesbury, according to whom King Sigeberht was King Rædwald's stepson[38]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies also state that "frater suus ex parte matris, Sigeberhtus" succeeded on the death of "Eorpwaldus"[39]. King Rædwald & his wife had two children:

i) EORPWALD (-murdered 627). Bede records that "regi Orientalium Anglorum, Earpualdo filio Redualdi" was converted to Christianity through the efforts of Eadwine King of Northumbria[40]. He is not named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. According to William of Malmesbury, Eadwine King of Northumbria was recognised by the East Anglians as their overlord[41]. Presumably this understates the nature and extent of Northumbrian influence in East Anglia during this period. Bede records that "regi Orientalium Anglorum, Earpualdo filio Redualdi" was killed by "viro gentili…Ricberto" and that the province was three years "in errore"[42].

ii) RÆGENHER (-killed in battle 616). Bede records that "filius Redualdi…Rægenheri" was killed in the battle in which his father defeated and killed Æthelfrith King of Northumbria[43], the event dated elsewhere to 616.

b) [ENNI. Nennius names Enni as son of Tytillus[44]. William of Malmesbury names Enni as brother of King Rædwald[45]. It is possible that Enni was a later invention to explain a family connection between King Rædwald and King Anna.]

- see below.

RICHBERT 627-630, SIGEBERT 630-, ECGRIC -635

1. RICHBERT, son of --- (-630). Bede records that "regi Orientalium Anglorum, Earpualdo filio Redualdi" was killed by "viro gentili…Ricberto" and that the province was three years "in errore"[46], although it is not clear from this text whether Richbert succeeded as king or whether there was a period of leaderless chaos. Another interpretation is that Richbert was the leader of a locally inspired revolt against Northumbrian domination.

1. [---. No information has been found about the father of King Sigeberht. The name of his son suggests a dynastic connection with the kings of the East Saxons (Essex). It is possible that king Sigeberht's reign marked a period of domination by Essex to the south. m as her first husband, ---. She married secondly Rædwald King of the East Angles.]

a) SIGEBERHT (-killed in battle 635). Bede records that "frater…Eorpualdi Sigberct", who had been exiled in France during his brother´s reign, succeeded three years after Eorpwald was killed[47]. According to Florence of Worcester´s genealogies, "frater suus ex parte matris, Sigeberhtus" succeeded on the death of "Eorpwaldus"[48]. William of Malmesbury also records that Sigeberht was King Rædwald's stepson[49]. This is an unlikely detail to be provided by such a late source and should be treated with scepticism. As mentioned above, King Sigeberht's name suggests a family connection with the kings of Essex. His name also sounds Frankish, which may also indicate a connection with the dynasty of the Merovingian Franks. In a later passage, Bede clarifies that Sigeberht had been "…in Gallia" fleeing from the enmity of "Redualdi"[50], which could favour the hypothesis about a Merovingian connection. Bede records that "regi Orientalium Anglorum, Earpualdo filio Redualdi" was killed by "viro gentili…Ricberto" after which the province was three years "in errore"[51], which would date Sigeberht´s accession to 630 if the other dates are correct. "Sigeberto rege" is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as having appointed Felix as bishop "in Domuce"[52]. William of Malmesbury reports that King Sigeberht encouraged the spread of Christianity among the East Anglian people, and "instituted schools of learning in different places"[53]. Bede records that "Sigberet" abdicated the throne in favour of "cognato suo Ecgrice" who had previously held part of the kingdom and retired to a monastery[54]. William of Malmesbury records that Sigeberht abdicated in favour of "his kinsman" Ecgric in 634 and became a monk at Bury St Edmunds[55]. Bede recounts that, after East Anglia was attacked by Penda King of Mercia, the East Anglians entreated ex-king Sigeberht to go with them into battle. After he refused, they forcibly removed him from his monastery and took him into battle, where he was immediately killed, along with Ecgric, as he refused to carry weapons[56].

…

Related to the above, the precise relationship is not known:

1. ECGRIC, son of --- (-killed in battle 635). Bede records that "Sigberet" abdicated the throne in favour of "cognato suo Ecgrice" who had previously held part of the kingdom and retired to a monastery[57]. Bede records that he was killed in the same battle as his predecessor fighting Penda King of Mercia[58].

ANNA 635-654, ÆTHELHERE 654, ÆTHELWALD 655-664, ALDWULF [664]-713, ÆLCWALD [664]-690, ÆLFWALD 747-749

[ENNI, son of [TYTTLA King of the East Angles] . Nennius names Enni as son of Tytillus[59]. Bede specifies that Enni was "of the blood royal" but does not give his precise relationship to the other members of the family[60]. William of Malmesbury names Enni as brother of King Rædwald[61]. It is possible that Enni was a later invention to explain a family connection between King Rædwald and King Anna.]

m ---. The name of the wife of Enni is not known.

[Enni] had four children:

1. ANNA (-killed in battle 654). Bede records that "Anna filius Eni de regio genere" succeeded after the death of Ecgric[62]. William of Malmesbury names Anna as son of Enni and successor of Ecgric[63]. He succeeded in 635 as ANNA King of the East Angles. Bede records that Cenwalh King of Wessex found refuge with "regem Orientalium Anglorum…Anna" after he was expelled from his kingdom[64]. The event is dated to [645/46] in other sources. Penda of Mercia attacked East Anglia in [650], destroyed the monastery of Cnobheresburg (possibly Burgh Castle, Norfolk) and expelled King Anna temporarily. Bede specifies that King Anna was "also slain by the same pagan commander as his predecessor had been"[65]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "king Anna was killed" in 653/54, but gives no details[66]. [m firstly --- . As noted below, the difference between the estimated birth dates of King Anna's two daughters suggests that he may have been married twice but this has not been corroborated by any primary source so far consulted.] m [secondly] ([635 or after]) as her second husband, ---. The name of the wife of King Anna is not known. The fact that this was her second marriage is deduced from Bede naming "Saethryd filia uxoris Annae regis Orientalium Anglorum" among those sent to monasteries in France[67]. If the details are correct, Bede must be referring to King Anna's second wife (assuming that it is correct that he was married twice). The name "Sæthryd" appears to be composed of root elements similar to those in names of the kings of the East Saxons (Essex). This recalls the East Saxon sounding name of King Anna's predecessor, King Sigeberht. It is therefore possible that King Anna married the widow of his predecessor but one in order to affirm his position as ruler in East Anglia after 635. If this is correct, it may have been his second marriage in view of the estimated birth date of his daughter Seaxburh (see below). King Anna & his [first wife] had one child:

a) SEAXBURH ([620/30]-after 695). Bede records that "Annae regis Orientalium Anglorum…filia maior Sexburg" married "Earconbercti regis Cantuariorum"[68]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Seaxburh, daughter of Anna king of the East Angles", as mother of Eorcengota[69]. Her birth and marriage dates are estimated on the basis of the probable birth date of her husband and an approximate chronology of her descendants which appears to be reasonably precise. Abbess of Ely. Bede records that "soror eius Sexburg" succeeded "Aedilthrydam, filiam Anna regis Orientalium Anglorum" as abbess of Ely, adding that she planned to remove her sister´s remains sixteen years after she died but found that the body was uncorrupted when the coffin was opened[70]. m ([640/45]) EORCENBERHT King of Kent, son of EADBALD King of Kent & his second wife Emma of the Franks ([620]-14 Jul 664).

King Anna & his [second wife] had two children:

b) ÆTHELTHRYTH ([640/45]-679). Bede records that "rex Ecgfrid" married "Aedilthrydam, filiam Anna regis Orientalium Anglorum", who had previously married "princeps…Australium Gyruiorum…Tondberct" who had died soon after their marriage, adding that Bishop Wilfrid had informed him that the couple lived together for twelve years without consummating their marriage[71]. William of Malmesbury names "Etheldritha, Ethelburga and Sexburga" as the three daughters of Anna king of the East Angles, specifying that Etheldritha was married to two husbands[72]. Given the birth date of her second husband, it is likely that Æthelthryth was still an infant at the time of her two marriages, which would also explain the reported non-consummation of her second marriage, at least during the early years. If this is correct, it is probable that Æthelthryth was the half-sister of Seaxburh, born from a second marriage of her father. Æthelthryth granted land at Hexham to Wilfrid Bishop of York on which he founded a reat monastery. Bede recounts that she entered the monastery of "Aebbæ abbatissæ…amita regis Ecgfridi" at "Coludi urbem" and afterwards was appointed abbess "in regione…Elge" [Ely], and records her death seven years after becoming abbess[73]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that St Æthelthryth founded the monastery of Ely in 673[74]. m firstly TONBERT chief [princeps] of South Gyrwe. This marriage may have eased the absorption of the South Gyrwe, located in the area of Ely, into East Anglian jurisdiction[75]. This may have been a childhood betrothal, considering the birth date of Æthelthryth's second husband. m secondly ([648], marriage not consummated, divorced [before 677]) as his first wife, ECGFRITH of Northumbria, son of OSWIU King of Northumbria & his wife Eanflæd of Deira [Northumbria] (645-killed in battle Nechtansmere [near Duin Nechtain in Forfarshire] 20 May 685). He succeeded his father in 670 as ECGFRITH King of Northumbria.

c) WIHTBURGA (-bur Derham, transferred 974 to Ely). The Vitæ sanctarum Etheldrithæ, Ethelburgæ, Sexburgæ et Wihtburgæ records the lives of the named four sisters who were all daughters of Anna King of East Anglia[76]. The identity of the mother of Wihtburga, who is not mentioned by Bede, is not known. The De sancta Withburga virgine names "sancta Wythburga" as daughter of "Anne regis Estanglorum" and sister of "sancte Etheldrede virginis", records that she built a monastery at Derham, her burial at Derham, and the transfer of her body to Ely in 974[77]. According to Florence of Worcester´s genealogies, "sancta Wihtburga" was her father´s fourth daughter[78], which would suggest that she was born from his second marriage (unless she was illegitimate).

King Anna had one illegitimate daughter by an unknown mistress:

d) ÆTHELBERG (-bur Farmoutiers-en-Brie). Bede names "Annæ regis Orientalium Anglorum…filia naturalis…Aedilberg" among those sent to monasteries in France, specifying that she was made abbess of the "monasterii Brigensis" [Farmoutiers-en-Brie], adding that she was buried in the church whose construction she had started at the monastery[79].

2. ÆTHELHERE [Æthelric] (-killed in battle Winwæd, near Leeds 15 Nov 654). Bede names "Aedilheri, frater Anna regis Orientalium Anglorum" when recording that he succeeded his brother as king[80]. Nennius names "Edric" as son of Eni, presumably indicating the same person called Æthelhere by Bede as he also says that he was the father of Aldwulf[81]. According to the genealogy in the Anglian collection, the name of Hereswith's husband was Æthelric[82]. He succeeded his brother in 654 as ÆTHELHERE King of the East Angles. Bede records that "Aedilheri frater Anna regis Orientalium Anglorum", who had succeeded his brother as king, allied himself with Penda King of Mercia and was killed by "rex Osuiu…cum Alchfrido filio" with the Mercian king near "fluvium Vinuaed", dated in a later passage to "XVII Kal Dec" in the thirteenth year of King Oswiu´s reign[83]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Æthelhere brother of Anna king of East Anglia" as one of the thirty princes slain with Penda by Oswy at "Winwidfeld" in 654[84]. m (repudiated 647) HERESWITH, daughter of HERERIC of Deira [Northumbria] & his wife Beorhtswith. Bede names "Hild…soror ipsius Heresuid, mater Alduulfi regis Orientalium Anglorum" when recording that she was living "Galliam…in monasterio Cale" to which her sister Hild was also planning to go[85]. According to the genealogy in the Anglian collection, the name of Hereswith's husband was Æthelric[86]. After being repudiated by her husband, she became a nun at the convent of Chelles near Paris in [647]. King Æthelhere & his wife had two children:

a) [ALDWULF (-713). William of Malmesbury names "Aldulph and Elcwold, the sons of Æthelhere" as successors of Æthelwald[87], although this is chronologically difficult to sustain if his date of death is correct as shown here. Nennius names Aldwulf as son of "Edric", son of Eni[88]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Aldwulfum et Ælfwoldum" as the two sons of "Æthelherum…de regina sua sancta Hereswitha, sorore sanctæ Hild abbatissæ"[89]. According to the genealogy in the Anglian collection, his father was named Æthelric[90]. He succeeded [his uncle in 664] as ALDWULF King of the East Angles, [jointly with his brother Ælcwald]. Considering the alleged span of his reign, it is more likely that there were intermediate monarchs between Æthelwald and Aldwulf. The dating clause of an instrument presented by Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury to the Council of Hatfield, dated "XV Kal Oct" [680], refers to the seventeenth year of "Alduulfo rege Estranglorum"[91]. Nothing is known about the kings of East Anglia after the death of Aldwulf and before King Selræd mentioned in 747.] King Aldwulf had [three] children:

i) ECBURGA. Abbess of Repton. Felix´s Vita Guthlaci records that "Ecgburh the abbess, the daughter of Aldwulf the king" sent a lead coffin and winding-sheet to Guthlac for his burial[92]. 714.

ii) [ÆLRIC . Nennius names "Elric" as son of Aldwulf[93].]

iii) [ÆLFWALD (-749). According to the genealogy in the Anglian collection, his father was King Aldwulf (see above), whom he succeeded as king in 713[94]. William of Malmesbury records that he succeeded King Selræd in 747[95] as ÆLFWALD King of the East Angles. "Ælbuualdus Æstanglorum…regis" wrote to Boniface dated [747/49][96]. He ordered the compilation of the earliest life of St Guthlac. Simeon of Durham records the death in 749 of "Elfwald king of the East Angles", stating that thereafter "Hunbeanna and Alberht divided the kingdom between them"[97].]

b) [ÆLCWALD (-690). Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Aldwulfum et Ælfwoldum" as the two sons of "Æthelherum…de regina sua sancta Hereswitha, sorore sanctæ Hild abbatissæ"[98]. William of Malmesbury names "Aldulph and Elcwold, the sons of Æthelhere" as successors of Æthelwald[99]. He succeeded [his uncle in 664] as ÆLCWALD King of the East Angles, [jointly with his brother Aldwulf].]

3. ÆTHELWALD (-664). William of Malmesbury names Æthelwald as brother and successor of Æthelhere[100]. He succeeded his brother in 655 as ÆTHELWALD King of the East Angles.

SELRÆD -747

SELRÆD of the East Saxons, son of SIGEBERHT King of the East Saxons "the Good" (-killed 747). He succeeded as SELRÆD King of the East Angles[101]. The date of his accession is not known. As nothing is known about the kings of East Anglia after the death of King Aldwulf, estimated in 713, it is possible that the kingdom fell under the domination of Essex.

BEORNA 749-757, ÆTHELRED 757-790, ÆTHELBERHT 790-794

The origins of Beorna are not known:

1. BEORNA (-757). Simeon of Durham records the death in 749 of "Elfwald king of the East Angles", stating that thereafter "Hunbeanna and Alberht divided the kingdom between them"[102]. According to the Northern annals of the Historia Regum, East Anglia was divided between Hun, Alberht and Beorna[103], suggesting that these were three separate individuals. The last named was the only one to mint coins in his own name, inscribed Beonna rex[104]. He succeeded in 749[105] as BEORNA King of the East Angles. Ipswich gradually emerged as an expanding trading centre, and there was an attempt to restore silver coinage, suggesting some reassertion of independence from Mercian control[106]. m ---. The name of Beorna´s wife is not known. Beorna had one child:

a) ÆTHELRED (-790). The primary source which confirms his parentage has not yet been identified. He succeeded his father in 757[107] as ÆTHELRED King of the East Angles. m LEOFRUNA, daughter of ---. The De sancto Ethelberto rege et martiro names "patre…Ethelredo, matre…Leoveromia" as parents of "Orientalium Anglorum rex Ethelbertus"[108]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Leofruna" as wife of "Æthelredus"[109]. Æthelred & his wife had [one possible child]:

i) [ÆTHELBERHT (-beheaded [Sutton Walls, near Hereford] 794, bur Hereford Cathedral). The De sancto Ethelberto rege et martiro names "patre…Ethelredo, matre…Leoveromia" as parents of "Orientalium Anglorum rex Ethelbertus"[110]. William of Malmesbury also states that Æthelberht was the son of Æthelred[111]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctum Æthelberhtum" as son of "Æthelredus…de regina sua Leofruna"[112]. He succeeded in 790 as ÆTHELBERHT King of the East Angles. He had started minting his own coins, but was stopped by Offa King of Mercia[113]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he was beheaded on the orders of Offa King of Mercia[114]. The De sancto Ethelberto rege et martiro records that "Orientalium Anglorum rex Ethelbertus" was buried "in loco…Fernlega"[115]. He was afterwards regarded as a martyr, his relics being preserved at Hereford which became the centre of his cult. m ([790/93], not consummated) ÆLFTHRYTH, daughter of OFFA King of Mercia & [his wife Cynethryth]. The De sancto Ethelberto rege et martiro records that "Orientalium Anglorum rex Ethelbertus" refused to marry "Egeonis filiam…Seledridam" but wanted to marry "Offam regem Merciorum…filiam eius…Alftrida"[116]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that "Siward the lord abbot of Croyland" lived for four months in the cell of "the most holy virgin Etheldritha (she was the daughter of Offa, the former king of the Mercians, and wife of the holy martyr Ethelbert, the former king of East Anglia)" while Mercia was overrun by Ecgberht King of Wessex[117]. If this marriage is correct, it was presumably arranged by Ælfthryth's father shortly after Æthelberht's accession in an attempt to form an alliance or subjugate East Anglia. Ælfthryth lived as a recluse at Croyland abbey.]

EADWALD, ÆTHELSTAN

EADWALD, son of ---. He succeeded as EADWALD King of the East Angles, although the date of his accession is unknown. Evidence for his existence is found in coins minted in his name [late 790s] in East Anglia[118], indicating presumably that Mercia ceased to control East Anglia after the death of King Offa. Yorke suggests that he was ousted by Cenwulf King of Mercia[119].

ÆTHELSTAN, son of ---. He succeeded in [830][120] as ÆTHELSTAN King of the East Angles. Yorke suggests that he made his first bid for the throne after the death of Cenwulf King of Mercia, was subsequently ousted by Ceolwulf, re-emerged as king after Ceolwulf's death, and that he was probably the anonymous East Anglian king who is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as the slayer of Kings Beornwulf and Ludeca in 826 and 827 respectively[121].

ÆTHELWEARD, son of ---. Evidence for his existence is found in coins minted in his name[122].

EDMUND 855-869, ÆTHELRED, OSWALD

1. [ALKMUND . A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex libello de vita S. Edmundi regis Estanglorum", names "S. Alcmundus rex Saxoniæ et Siuara" as parents of "S. Edwoldum confessorum et anchoritam…"[123]. However, Leland gives no indication of the date of this manuscript. m SIVARA, daughter of ---. A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex libello de vita S. Edmundi regis Estanglorum", names "S. Alcmundus rex Saxoniæ et Siuara" as parents of "S. Edwoldum confessorum et anchoritam"[124]. [Alkmund & his wife had three children]:

a) [EADWOLD (-bur Cerne monastery). A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex libello de vita S. Edmundi regis Estanglorum", names "S. Edwoldum confessorum et anchoritam" as first son of "S. Alcmundus rex Saxoniæ et Siuara", adding that he was buried "in monasterio de Cerne"[125].]

b) [(St) EADMUND ([840]-murdered 20 Nov 869[126], bur Beodricsworth). A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex libello de vita S. Edmundi regis Estanglorum", names "Edmundum" as second son of "S. Alcmundus rex Saxoniæ et Siuara", adding that he was born "apud Norembrigia in Saxonia" in 841 and later governed "orientalibus Anglis"[127]. Eadmund may have been a descendant of the earlier kings of East Anglia[128], but the precise descent is not known. Asser records that "Edmund…king of the East Angles" began to reign on "the eighth day before the kalends of January i.e. on the birthday of our Lord in the fourteenth year of his age"[129]. He succeeded 8 Jan 855 as EDMUND King of the East Angles. He was crowned on Christmas Day 854[130]. He was defeated and killed by Ingvar[131], a Dane under Halfdan. His cult was developed in [985/87] by Abbo Abbot of Fleury, commemorated in his Martyrdom of St Edmund King of the East Angles 870[132]. The town of Bury St Edmunds developed around his grave.]

c) [ELBERT (-bur Cormin). A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex libello de vita S. Edmundi regis Estanglorum", names "Elbertum" as third son of "S. Alcmundus rex Saxoniæ et Siuara", adding that he was buried "in Cormin civitate Holandiæ transmarinæ in quodam cœnobio monach: Benedict:"[133].]

ÆTHELRED, OSWALD

ÆTHELRED, son of ---. He succeeded in ---- as ÆTHELRED King of the East Angles. He is identified only by evidence from coins[134], and was presumably appointed as king by the Danes.

OSWALD, son of ---. He succeeded in ---- as OSWALD King of the East Angles. He is identified only by evidence from coins[135], and was presumably appointed as king by the Danes.

GUTHRUM, EOHRIC

GUTHRUM, son of ---. According to William of Malmesbury he was a Dane and reigned for twelve years as GUTHRUM King of the East Angles, in the time of Alfred King of Wessex[136]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the death in 890 of "Guthrum the northern king, whose baptismal name was Athelstan", adding that he was King Alfred´s godson and "dwelt in East Anglia, and was the first to take possession of that country"[137]. Roger of Wendover records that "Gytro Danus, rex orientalium Anglorum" died in 890[138].

EOHRIC, son of --- (-killed at the battle of the Holm [902/05]). A Dane, he succeeded King Guthrum as EOHRIC King of the East Angles. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record that "Eohric" succeeded "Guthrum" and reigned for fourteen years before he was killed by "Angli"[139]. William of Malmesbury records that he was killed by the Angles "because he conducted himself with cruelty towards them"[140]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "king Eohric" was killed in battle with "Æthelwold" [cousin of Eadward King of Wessex] in 905 "between the dikes and the Wissey"[141]. This represents the last reference to a king of East Anglia.

Chapter 2. KINGS of ESSEX (EAST SAXONS)

Bede names the three Germanic tribes which invaded Britain as "Saxonibus, Anglis, Iutis", adding that the Saxons were ancestors of "Orientales Saxones, Meridiani Saxones, Occidui Saxones" (people of Essex, Sussex and Wessex)[142]. Henry of Huntingdon sets out the ancestry of "Erchenwin" who he says was first king of "Orientalium Saxonum": "Erchenwin…fuit filius Offæ, filii Biedcan, filii Sigewlf, filii Spoewe, filii Gesac, filii Andesc, filii Saxnat"[143]. An alternative line of ancestry is provided by Roger of Wendover who records that "Erkenwinus" was son of "Offæ, qui fuit Diedcan, qui fuit Sigeuulf, que fuit Susannæ, qui fuit Gesac, qui fuit Andessc, qui fuit Nascad"[144]. Yorke points out that the East Saxon kings were the only ones among their Anglo-Saxon contemporaries whose descent is claimed not from Woden but instead from "Saxnat", identified as the god Seaxneting or Saxnot who was worshipped by the Old Saxons of Germany[145], although Roger of Wendover records that "Sledda" was tenth in descent "a Wodeno"[146].

Very little is known about the lives of the kings of Essex. The only references in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are to kings Sæberht and Sigeric. The pedigrees of three kings of the East Saxons, Offa, Swithred and Sigered, are found in a 9th century West Saxon manuscript[147]. After the time of Bede, there is considerable uncertainty about the relationships between the kings of Essex. Few charters have survived, and none at all which are dated after the first decade of the 8th century. Most of the information relating to the family relationships of the kings of Essex is found in post-conquest sources. It is of course not known what other earlier material, since disappeared, may still have been available at the time of their composition. The later sources should not therefore be dismissed entirely. However, in view of this unusual situation, the reconstruction of the kings of Essex is presented in this chapter in two parts, Part A. shows the limited material which is available in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Bede, while Part B. combines this material with information from the later sources. The whole of Part B. should therefore be viewed with some caution.

After the expulsion of Sigered King of Essex in [826], the kingdom was ruled by Æthelwulf, son of Ecgberht King of Wessex, as a sub-kingdom together with the Sussex, Kent and Surrey. The outline genealogy shown below is reconstructed mainly from the 12th century chronicle of William of Malmesbury, which was presumably based on earlier traditional genealogies and regnal lists which have not been identified. The more obvious problems with the chronology have been highlighted below. Many of the relationships between the earlier monarchs, and even their names, are not included in Bede. The suspicion is that the genealogy has been expanded by subsequent compilers in order to present a unified picture of the history of the kings of Essex. Large parts of it are likely to be factually incorrect although this is of course impossible to verify. Anglo-Saxon nobles with the root "Sige-" in their names are identified in sources as living in the late 9th and early 10th centuries (see ANGLO-SAXON NOBILITY), which suggests a family connection with the kings of Essex.

A. KINGS of ESSEX (EARLY SOURCE MATERIAL ONLY)

1. --- . m RICULA of Kent, daughter of EORMENRIC King of Kent & his wife ---. Her parentage and marriage are indicated by Bede who records that her son "Saberet nepos Aedilbercti ex sorore Ricula" was king of "provinciæ Orientalium Saxonum", but subject to King Æthelberht, when Augustine appointed Mellitus as bishop in 604[148]. One child:

a) SÆBERHT (-[616/626]). Bede records that "Saberet nepos Aedilbercti ex sorore Ricula" was king of "provinciæ Orientalium Saxonum", but subject to King Æthelberht, when Augustine appointed Mellitus as bishop in 604[149]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Sæberht the son of Ricole, Æthelberht's sister" as having been appointed king of the East Saxons by Æthelberht[150]. Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans[151]. m ---. The name of Sæberht´s wife is not known. Sæberht & [his wife] had three children:

i) three sons . Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans and drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[152].

2. SIGEBERHT "Parvus" . Bede names "Orientales Saxones…rex…Sigberct" as successor of "Sigberctum cognomento Parvum"[153].

3. SIGEBERHT (-[660s]). Bede names "Orientales Saxones…rex…Sigberct" as successor of "Sigberctum cognomento Parvum", adding that he was a friend of Oswy King of Northumbria who influenced his conversion to Christianity through Cedd who was appointed bishop of London[154].

4. SEAXBALD . m ---. The name of Seaxbald´s wife is not known. Seaxbald & his wife had one child:

a) SWITHELM (-[665]). Bede names "Suidhelm filius Sexbaldi" as successor of Sigeberht, specifying that Swithelm was baptised by Cedd at the royal manor of the Angles of Rendlesham [near Sutton Hoo], King Æthelwald acting as sponsor[155].

5. SIGEHERE [Sigher] (-[680s]). Bede names "reges Sigheri et Sebbi" as successors of "Suidhelmum" as kings of the East Saxons, subject to Wulfhere King of Mercia, specifying that Sigehere lapsed into paganism at the time of a plague but that King Wulfhere organised his reconversion[156]. One child:

a) OFFA (-Rome [after 709]). Bede records that "filius Sigheri regis Orientalium Saxonum…Offa" left his wife and went to Rome with "Coinred [rex] Merciorum" and became a monk[157]. m ---. The name of Offa´s wife is not known. Bede records that "filius Sigheri regis Orientalium Saxonum…Offa" left his wife and went to Rome with "Coinred [rex] Merciorum"[158].

6. SÆBBI . Bede names "reges Sigheri et Sebbi" as successors of "Suidhelmum" as kings of the East Saxons, subject to Wulfhere King of Mercia, specifying that Sigehere lapsed into paganism at the time of a plague but that King Wulfhere organised his reconversion[159]. m ---. The name of Sæbbi´s wife is not known. Sæbbi & his wife had two children:

a) SIGEHEARD (-[704 or before]). Bede records that "filio…Sighardo…cum fratre Suefredo" succeeded their father "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi"[160].

b) SWÆFRED (-[704 or before]). Bede records that "filio…Sighardo…cum fratre Suefredo" succeeded their father "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi"[161].

B. KINGS of ESSEX (ALL SOURCE MATERIAL)

SLEDDA, son of ERCHENWIN [Æscwine] (-[597]). Henry of Huntingdon records that "Slede filius eius" succeeded "Erchenwin" as king of "Orientalium Saxonum"[162]. Roger of Wendover records that "Sledda filius eius" succeeded "Erkenwino rege orientalium Saxonum" in 587[163]. According to William of Malmesbury, Sledda was the first king of the East Saxons from [587][164]. He is not referred to either by Bede or in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

m RICULA of Kent, daughter of EORMENRIC King of Kent & his wife ---. Her parentage and marriage are indicated by Bede who records that her son "Saberet nepos Aedilbercti ex sorore Ricula" was king of "provinciæ Orientalium Saxonum", but subject to King Æthelberht, when Augustine appointed Mellitus as bishop in 604[165]. Henry of Huntingdon records that "Slede" married "filiam Ermenrici regis Cantuariorum, sororem…Ethelberti"[166]. Her marriage indicates the close relationship between the kingdom of Kent and the kingdom of the East Saxons, Yorke suggesting that Kent played a key role in bringing her husband's family to power[167].

Sledda & his wife had [two] children:

1. SÆBERHT [Sigeberht] (-[616/626]). Bede records that "Saberet nepos Aedilbercti ex sorore Ricula" was king of "provinciæ Orientalium Saxonum", but subject to King Æthelberht, when Augustine appointed Mellitus as bishop in 604[168]. Henry of Huntingdon names "Siberctum" as son of "Slede" and his wife "filiam Ermenrici regis Cantuariorum, sororem…Ethelberti"[169]. William of Malmesbury names Sebert as son of Sledda[170]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Sæberht the son of Ricole, Æthelberht's sister" as having been appointed king of the East Saxons by Æthelberht[171]. Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans[172]. Henry of Huntingdon records that "Sebertus rex Estsexe" died in the same year in which Penda succeeded as king of Mercia[173], dated to 626 in other sources. m ---. The name of Sæberht´s wife is not known. Sæberht & [his wife] had three children:

a) SÆWEARD [Sigeweard] (-killed [623]). Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans and drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[174]. William of Malmesbury names Sexred and Seward as sons of Sebert[175]. He succeeded his father as king of Essex, jointly with his two brothers. Roger of Wendover records that "Sexredum et Siwardum fratres" were killed by "Kinegilso rege occidentalium Saxonum et Quichelmo filio eius" in 623[176]. This date is inconsistent with Henry of Huntingdon´s report that their father died in 626 (see above). William of Malmesbury records that he and his brother were killed by the West Saxons[177]. Sæweard had three children:

i) SIGEBERHT "Parvus" (-653). Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record that "Sigeberhtus cognomento Parvus…Sæwardi filius" succeeded when his father and uncle were killed[178]. Roger of Wendover records that "Sigebertus cognomento Parwus, Siwardi…filius" succeeded as king "apud orientales Saxones" after "Sexredum et Siwardum fratres", adding that the people immediately expelled "Mellitum Londonensium episcopum"[179]. Henry of Huntingdon records that "Sigebertus cognomina Parvus" succeeded as king of Essex on the death of "Sebertus rex Estsexe" but gives no relationship between the two[180]. William of Malmesbury names "Sigebert surnamed the Little" as son of Sæweard[181]. Sigeberht had one child:

(a) SIGEHERE [Sigher] (-[683]). William of Malmesbury names "Sigher the son of Sigebert the Little and Sebbi the son of Seward" as successors of Swithelm, specifying that Sigher died before Sæbbi[182]. Bede names "reges Sigheri et Sebbi" as successors of "Suidhelmum" as kings of the East Saxons, subject to Wulfhere King of Mercia, specifying that Sigehere lapsed into paganism at the time of a plague but that King Wulfhere organised his reconversion[183]. Roger of Wendover records that "Sebba filio Sewardi et Sigehero filio Sigeberti parvi" ordained "Erkenwaldum" as bishop of London in 675[184]. Roger of Wendover records the death in 683 of "Sigehero orientalium Saxonum rege" adding that thereafter "Sebba" ruled as sole king[185]. m [OSYTH, daughter of ---. She founded a religious house at Chich in Essex][186]. The primary source which confirms her marriage has not yet been identified. Sigehere had one child:

(1) OFFA (-Rome after 709). William of Malmesbury names Offa son of Sigeher as successor of "Segard and Seufred", sons of Sæbbi, specifying that he governed the kingdom for a short time, was "a youth of engaging countenance and disposition", and went to Rome with "Cenred King of the Mercians and the blessed Egwin bishop of Wictians" where he died soon after[187]. He succeeded his cousin King Swæfred in 704 as King of the East Saxons. Bede records that "filius Sigheri regis Orientalium Saxonum…Offa" left his wife and went to Rome with "Coinred [rex] Merciorum" and became a monk[188]. m ---. The name of Offa´s wife is not known. Bede records that "filius Sigheri regis Orientalium Saxonum…Offa" left his wife and went to Rome with "Coinred [rex] Merciorum"[189].

ii) son . Bede records that, after the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", his three sons who were still pagans drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[190].

iii) son . Bede records that, after the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", his three sons who were still pagans drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[191].

iv) [SÆWEARD . William of Malmesbury, as noted below, records Sæbbi as the son of Sæweard. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record precisely that "Sæbbi filius Sæwardi, filii regis S. Sæberhti" succeeded as one of the joint kings on the death of King Swithhelm[192]. From a chronological point of view, it appears unlikely that this Sæweard was the same person as King Sæweard who was killed in [623]. It is therefore possible that he was one of the unnamed sons of King Sæweard named by Bede (see above). This would be consistent with Sæbbi having succeeded as king jointly with Sigehere, who would have been Sæbbi´s first cousin in this scenario. m ---. The name of Sæweard´s wife is not known. Sæweard & [his wife] had one child:

(a) SÆBBI (-London 694). Bede names "reges Sigheri et Sebbi" as successors of "Suidhelmum" as kings of the East Saxons, subject to Wulfhere King of Mercia, specifying that Sigehere lapsed into paganism at the time of a plague but that King Wulfhere organised his reconversion[193]. William of Malmesbury names "Sigher the son of Sigebert the Little and Sebbi the son of Seward" as successors of Swithelm, specifying that Sæbbi abdicated "in his thirtieth year" and became a monk "as Beda relates"[194].

- see below.

b) SEXRED (-killed [623]). Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans and drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[195]. William of Malmesbury names Sexred and Seward as sons of Sebert[196]. He succeeded his father as King of Essex, jointly with his two brothers. Roger of Wendover records that "Sexredum et Siwardum fratres" were killed by "Kinegilso rege occidentalium Saxonum et Quichelmo filio eius" in 623[197]. This date is inconsistent with Henry of Huntingdon´s report that their father died in 626 (see above). William of Malmesbury records that he and his brother were killed by the West Saxons[198].

c) son . Bede records the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", after the death of Æthelberht King of Kent, adding that he left three sons who were still pagans and drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[199].

2. [SIGEBALD [Seaxbald]. William of Malmesbury names "Sigebert the son of Sigebald who was the brother of Sebert"[200], although it appears more likely from a chronological point of view that his sons belonged to the following generation. If this is correct, Sigebald may have been the son of Sæberht.]

a) SIGEBERHT (-killed [660]). William of Malmesbury names "Sigebert the son of Sigebald who was the brother of Sebert" as successor of Sigeberht "the Little", specifying that he was baptised in Northumbria by Bishop Finan, encouraged by Oswiu King of Northumbria[201]. Bede names "Orientales Saxones…rex…Sigberct" as successor of "Sigberctum cognomento Parvum", adding that he was a friend of Oswy King of Northumbria who influenced his conversion to Christianity through Cedd who was appointed bishop of London[202]. Roger of Wendover dates the baptism of "Sigebertum regem orientalium Saxonum" to 649[203]. William of Malmesbury records that he was murdered by his relations[204]. Sigeberht had one child:

i) SELRÆD (-killed 747). William of Malmesbury names "Selred son of Sigebert the Good" as successor of Offa, specifying that he ruled for 38 years but was slain[205]. He succeeded as SELRÆD King of the East Angles[206], although the date of his accession is not known.

b) SWITHELM (-[665]). William of Malmesbury names Swithelm as brother and successor of Sigeberht, specifying that he had been baptised by Chedd in East Anglia[207]. Bede names "Suidhelm filius Sexbaldi" as successor of Sigeberht, although he does not say that the two were brothers, specifying that Swithelm was baptised by Cedd at the royal manor of the Angles of Rendlesham [near Sutton Hoo], King Æthelwald acting as sponsor[208]. Roger of Wendover records that "Swithelmus filius Sexbaldi" succeeded "Sigeberto in regnum orientalium Saxonum"[209].

c) SWITHFRITH. Co-ruler with his brother King Swithhelm.

SÆBBI, son of SÆWEARD (-London 694). Bede records that, after the death of "Sabercti regis Orientalium Saxonum", his three sons who were still pagans drove Bishop Mellitus to France because he refused to give them the Eucharistic bread[210]. Bede names "reges Sigheri et Sebbi" as successors of "Suidhelmum" as kings of the East Saxons, subject to Wulfhere King of Mercia, specifying that Sigehere lapsed into paganism at the time of a plague but that King Wulfhere organised his reconversion[211]. William of Malmesbury names "Sigher the son of Sigebert the Little and Sebbi the son of Seward" as successors of Swithelm, specifying that Sæbbi abdicated "in his thirtieth year" and became a monk "as Beda relates"[212]. Roger of Wendover records that "Sebba filio Sewardi et Sigehero filio Sigeberti parvi" ordained "Erkenwaldum" as bishop of London in 675[213]. Roger of Wendover records the death in 683 of "Sigehero orientalium Saxonum rege" adding that thereafter "Sebba" ruled as sole king[214]. "Sebbe regis ac consensus patris mei" subscribed the charter dated 689 of "Suabhardus rex Cantuariorum"[215]. Bede records that "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi" became a monk after reigning for 30 years, died soon afterwards, and was buried "in ecclesia beati doctoris gentium", no year stated[216].

m ---. The name of Sæbbi's wife is not known. Bede records that the wife of "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi" became a nun when her husband became a monk[217].

King Sæbbi had two sons:

1. SIGEHEARD (-704 or before). Bede records that "filio…Sighardo…cum fratre Suefredo" succeeded their father "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi"[218]. William of Malmesbury names "Segard and Seufred" as sons and successors of Sæbbi[219]. Sigeheard had one child:

a) SIGEMUND. The primary source which confirms his parentage has not yet been identified. Sigemund had [one possible child]:

i) [SWITHRED. William of Malmesbury names "Swithed" as successor to Selred, but specifies that he was expelled by Ecgberht King of Wessex in the same year that the latter subdued Kent (which was in 824)[220], although it is chronologically impossible for Swithred still to have been reigning when the king of Essex was expelled.]

2. SWÆFRED [Swæfheard] (-704 after 13 Jun[221]). Bede records that "filio…Sighardo…cum fratre Suefredo" succeeded their father "[rex] Orientalium Saxonum…Sebbi"[222]. William of Malmesbury names "Segard and Seufred" as sons and successors of Sæbbi[223], which is corroborated by his father's subscription of Swæfred's charter dated 689224. The same charter reveals that he briefly succeeded as SWÆFRED King of Kent, as it records "Suabhardus rex Cantuariorum" granting land at Thanet and Sturry, Kent to Æbba abbess of Minster-in-Thanet, subscribed by "Ædilredi regis Merciorum" and "Sebbe regis ac consensus patris mei"[224]. Swæfred presumably returned to Essex in 690 on the accession of Wihtred King of Kent. "Sueabræd rex Eastsaxanorum" granted land at Twickenham to bishop Waldhario by charter dated 704, subscribed by "Ciolred [rex] Mercensium"[225], which suggests that Essex was under Mercian control during King Swæfred's reign.

The connection between the following individuals and the previous family of kings of Essex has not been established.

1. SIGERIC, son of --- (-after 798). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Sigeric king of Essex journeyed to Rome" in 798[226].

2. SIGERED, son of --- (-after [829/37]) He appears in two charters of Cenwulf King of Mercia with the title king in 811, but thereafter appears as dux[227]. He surrendered to Ecgberht King of Wessex after the defeat of Cenwulf King of Mercia in 825[228]. He was expelled from his kingdom [826][229]. During the period when Wiglaf returned as King of Mercia, Sigered is recorded as king of the East Saxons in a lease of land in Hertfordshire dated [829/37][230].

Chapter 3. KINGS of KENT

Bede names the three Germanic tribes which invaded Britain as "Saxonibus, Anglis, Iutis", adding that the Jutes were ancestors of "Cantuarii et Uictarii" (people of Kent and the Isle of Wight)[231]. Bede records that the kings of Kent were usually called "Oiscingas" after "Oeric cognomento Oisc", great-grandfather of Æthelberht King of Kent[232]. The Kentish kings claimed descent from Woden in common with the founder kings of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The mythical descent of Wihtgils, father of Hengist and Horsa, is set out in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[233]: Woden/Wecta/Witta/Wihtgils. As mentioned in the Introduction, early sources give no information on the earliest kings and their ancestors. It is therefore possible that the first few generations of the genealogy were fabricated by later compilers in order to give a complete and unified picture of the history of the Kentish kingdom.

Kent is alleged to have been the first kingdom founded in Britain by the invaders and also the first to embrace Christianity. King Æthelberht married a Christian princess of the Merovingian Frankish dynasty and welcomed St Augustine in 597, which led to the establishment of the bishopric, later archbishopric, of Canterbury. Frankish influence in Kent is reflected by the number of marriages with the Merovingian royal house, and in the Frankish sounding name of King Hlothhere which resembles the Merovingian "Clotaire" and the Carolingian "Lothar". The earlier history of the kingdom of Kent is mainly derived from Bede's Ecclesiastical History. The genealogy of the kings until Æthelberht II (who died in 762) is included in the Anglian collection. There is also a 12th century copy of a regnal list, and 41 charters which have survived from the religious houses of Canterbury, Rochester, Minster-in-Thanet, Lyminge and Reculver. These are supplemented by the texts relating the Legend of St Mildrith[234]. Æthelberht I is the first king of Kent about whom there is contemporary documentary evidence other than the Kentish royal genealogy, supplemented by references in the Frankish chronicle of Gregory of Tours. After the death of King Æthelberht II, there is considerable uncertainty about the kings of Kent, with little evidence for their existence except for names in charters.

A. KINGS of KENT [488]-686 and 690-[762], FIRST ROYAL HOUSE of KENT

[WIHTGILS.]

1. [HENGIST (-[488]). Bede names "duo fratres Hengist et Horsa…filii Uictigilsi, cuius pater Uecta, cuius pater Uoden" as the first Jutish commanders, adding that the Jutes were ancestors of "Cantuarii et Uictarii" (people of Kent and the Isle of Wight)[235]. In a later passage, Bede states that Hengist and his son "Oeric cognomento Oisc" were first invited into Britain "a Uurtigerno" [Vortigern][236]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates the arrival of Hengist and Horsa to the reign of Emperors Mauricius and Valentianus ([449/57]), adding that they arreived at "Ypwinesfleot" [Ebbsfleet] "at first to help the Britons, but later they fought against them"[237]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought against King Vortigern at "Agælesfrep" [Aylesford] where Horsa was killed, adding that "after that Hengest succeeded to the kingdom and Æsc his son"[238]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 457 "Hengist and Æesc" fought against the Britons at "Crecganford" [Crayford] where they "slew four thousand men" after which "the Britons…forsook Kent and fled to London"[239]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 465 "Hengist and Æsc" fought against the Welsh near "Wippedesfleot" where they "slew twelve Welsh nobles"[240]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 473 "Hengist and Æesc" fought against the Welsh again[241]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 488 "Æsc succeeded to the kingdom and was king of the people of Kent twenty-four years" but does not say that this was when Hengist died[242]. William of Malmesbury reports that Hengist died "in the thirty-ninth year after his arrival"[243].]

a) [ŒRIC [Oisc/Æsc] (-512). Bede names "Oeric cognomento Oisc" as son of "Hengist", adding that the kings of Kent were usually called "Oiscingas" after his name[244]. He was the son of Ochta, son of Hengist, according to the genealogy in the Anglian collection.]

- see below.

2. [HORSA (-killed in battle Agæles threp 455, bur [Horsted, Kent]). Bede names "duo fratres Hengist et Horsa…filii Uictigilsi, cuius pater Uecta, cuius pater Uoden" as the first Jutish commanders, adding that Horsa was killed in battle "a Brettonibus" and that a monument in eastern Kent bears his name[245]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought against King Vortigern at "Agælesfrep" [Aylesford] where Horsa was killed[246].]

OISC 488-512, OCHTA 512-539, EORMENRIC 539-568

[ŒRIC [Oisc/Æsc], son of HENGIST (-512). Bede names "Oeric cognomento Oisc" as son of "Hengist", adding that the kings of Kent were usually called "Oiscingas" after his name[247]. He was the son of Ochta, son of Hengist, according to the genealogy in the Anglian collection. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought against King Vortigern at "Agælesfrep" [Aylesford] where Horsa was killed, adding that "after that Hengest succeeded to the kingdom and Æsc his son"[248]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 457 "Hengist and Æesc" fought against the Britons at "Crecganford" [Crayford] where they "slew four thousand men" after which "the Britons…forsook Kent and fled to London"[249]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 465 "Hengist and Æsc" fought against the Welsh near "Wippedesfleot" where they "slew twelve Welsh nobles"[250]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 473 "Hengist and Æesc" fought against the Welsh again[251]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 488 "Æsc succeeded to the kingdom and was king of the people of Kent twenty-four years" but does not say that this was when Hengist died[252]. William of Malmesbury records that he was "more intent on defending than enlarging his dominions, never exceeded his paternal bounds"[253]. William of Malmesbury reports that Œric died "at the expiration of twenty-four years [from his accession]"[254].]

King Oisc had one son:

1. [OCHTA (-539). Bede records that "Octa" was son of "Oeric cognomento Oisc"[255]. Son of Hengist and father of Oisc according to the genealogy in the Anglian collection. He succeeded his father as king of Kent.] m ---. The name of Ochta's wife is not known. King Ochta had one son:

a) [EORMENRIC (-[560/80]). Bede names "Irminrici" as son of "Octa"[256]. The sources are contradictory regarding dates. According to William of Malmesbury[257] "to the times of both [King Ochta and King Eormenric] the Chronicles assign fifty-three years". The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the accession of King Æthelberht in 565[258]. However, elsewhere the Chronicle assigns an improbably long reign of fifty three years to Eormenric's son Æthelberht which, assuming the latter did in fact die in 616, would place his father's death in 563. Bede (see below) states that King Æthelberht ruled for fifty-six years, indicating an even earlier accession in 560. The decisive evidence may be provided by the marriage of King Æthelberht which, according to Gregory of Tours, occurred while his father still ruled Kent but which, as explained below, is likely to be dated to [580]. m ---. The name of King Eormenric's wife is not known.] King Eormenric had two children:

i) ÆTHELBERHT (after [550]-616). Bede records that "Aedilbert tex Cantuariorum" was "filius Irminrici"[259]. He succeeded his father in [565] as ÆTHELBERHT I King of Kent.

- see below.

ii) RICULA. Her parentage and marriage are indicated by Bede who records that her son "Saberet nepos Aedilbercti ex sorore Ricula" was king of "provinciæ Orientalium Saxonum", but subject to King Æthelberht, when Augustine appointed Mellitus as bishop in 604[260]. Her marriage indicates the close relationship between Kent and the kingdom of the East Saxons, Yorke suggesting that Kent played a key role in bringing her husband's family to power[261]. Her husband is named by William of Malmesbury as first king of the East Saxons from [587][262], but this is not verified by earlier primary sources. m SLEDDA King of the East Saxons, son of ERCENWINI [Æscwine] (-597).

ÆTHELBERHT I [580]-616, EADBALD 616-640

ÆTHELBERHT, son of EORMENRIC King of Kent & his wife --- (after [550]-24 Feb 616, bur Canterbury, Church of St Peter and St Paul). Bede records that "Aedilbert tex Cantuariorum" was "filius Irminrici"[263]. He succeeded his father as ÆTHELBERHT I King of Kent, the dating of the event being discussed above in relation to his father's death. In the early years of his reign according to Bede, he was "defeated in two battles, he could scarcely defend his frontier" but in the later years "subjugated every kingdom of the Angles, with the exception of the Northumbrians"[264]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Ceawlin and Cutha" fought against "Æthelberht" [King of Kent] in 568 and "drove him into Kent", and "slew two princes Oslaf and Cnebba at Wibbandun"[265]. Bede records that "rex Aedilberct in Cantia" had extended his authority as far as the river Humber when Augustine landed at Thanet island, Kent[266]. Bede records that the king´s royal court was at Canterbury ("in civitate Doruuernensi"), where Augustine was allowed to settle after the king eventually allowed him to leave Thanet[267]. King Æthelberht converted to Christianity, the first of the Anglo-Saxon kings to do so, presumably some time before 601, the date of the letter from Pope Gregory I welcoming him to the Christian faith[268]. Bede quotes the text of this letter, dated "X Kal Jul" in the nineteenth year of the reign of Emperor Mauricius (601), addressed to "Aedilbercto regi Anglorum"[269]. Yorke suggests[270] that the king's conversion by the Papal representative, rather than by his first wife's Frankish bishop Liudhard, represented an assertion of his independence from Frankish control. Augustine established his see at Canterbury, a second see being founded at Rochester in 604 with Justus as bishop, and a third in London at St Paul's under Mellitus. He promulgated laws, similar in form to the lex salica of Clovis King of the Franks, which represent the earliest body of law in any Germanic language. He granted land at Rochester to the church in a charter dated 28 Apr 604[271], the oldest surviving Anglo-Saxon charter. Bede records the death in 616 "twenty one years after Augustine was sent to England" of "Aedilbert tex Cantuariorum" after a reign of 56 years, the third king who had authority over the southern provinces, adding in a later passage that he died 24 Feb twenty one years after converting to Christianity and was buried "in portico sancti Martini intro ecclesiam beatorum apostolorum Petri et Pauli" where "Berctæ regina" was buried[272]. Assuming that the generally accepted date of 597 for St Augustine's landing is correct, both references are overstated. The Annales Lindisfarnenses et Cantuarienses record the death "618 VI Kal Mar" of "filius rex Edilbert Cantioriorum Irminrici"[273].

m firstly ([580]) BERTA of the Franks, daughter of CHARIBERT King of the Franks & his first wife Ingelberge ([before 560]-[601/before 616], bur Canterbury, Church of St Peter and St Paul). Gregory of Tours records that the daughter of King Charibert and his wife Ingoberg "eventually married a man from Kent and went to live there"[274]. Bede records that "rex Aedilberct in Cantia" had "uxorem…Christianam de gente Francorum regia…Bercta" whom he had received "a parentibus" on condition she retained her religion[275]. It is reasonable to assume that Berta was born before 560, given the subsequent marital history of her father, who died in 567 having married three times after repudiating his first wife, although it is possible that some if not all his marriages were polygamous. Already a Christian when she came to England, she was accompanied by Liudhard, a Frankish bishop[276], although if he attempted to convert her husband his efforts must have been unsuccessful in view of the king´s later conversion by St Augustine. Kirby suggests that the marriage took place in [580] after analysing the various contradictory chronological indications in contemporary sources[277]. According to Bede, as noted above, King Æthelberht received Bertha "a parentibus". As her father died in 567, and her mother in 589, the text if taken literally means that she married before 567, although this seems unlikely. The word "parents" may in this context mean "relatives" more broadly. Queen Bertha is named in Pope Gregory I's letter of 601 to her husband[278]. Bede records the burial of "Aedilbert tex Cantuariorum" in "portico sancti Martini intro ecclesiam beatorum apostolorum Petri et Pauli" stating that this was where "Berctæ regina" was buried[279].

m secondly (after 601), as her first husband, --- (-after [618]). The name of the second wife of King Æthelberht is not known. According to William of Malmesbury[280], she was "another Frankish princess" but no corroboration has been found for this. She married secondly, as his first wife, her stepson Eadbald King of Kent after the death of King Æthelberht, but was repudiated (see below). Her second marriage is confirmed by Bede who records that "filius eius Eadbald" succeeded as king after the death of "Aedilbercti", adding that he refused to embrace Christianity and was also "fornicatione pollutus" because he had "uxorem patris", adding in a later passage that her husband was persuaded to repudiate her when he was converted to Christianity[281].

King Æthelberht had two children by his first marriage:

1. ÆTHELBERG [Tate] ([590]-after 633). Bede records that "rege…Aeduino" married "Aedilbergae filia Aedilberti regis…Tatae vocabatur" and that she was taken to Northumbria by Paulinus after he was ordained bishop by Archbishop Justus "XII Kal Aug" in 625[282]. This date is inconsistent with the correspondence of Pope Boniface V, who was Pope from 619 to 625, in particular the letter to Queen Æthelberg, quoted by Bede[283]. Bede records that "rege…Aeduino" was converted to Christianity by "Paulino"[284], which was written after the Pope learned of her brother's conversion and admonishing her husband for his continued non-conversion. The date range [619/23] for the marriage seems a safer hypothesis. Bede records that, after her husband was killed, Paulinus took "regina Aedilberge" to Kent by sea where they were received with honour by "Honorio archiepiscopo et rege Eadbaldo"[285]. m ([619/23]) as his second wife, EADWINE King of Northumbria, son of ÆLLE King of Deira [Northumbria] & his wife --- (585-killed in battle Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster 12 Oct 633 or 634, bur Whitby Abbey).

2. EADBALD (-20 Jan 640). "Eadbaldo filio meo" subscribed King Æthelberht's charter dated 604[286]. He succeeded his father in 616 as EADBALD King of Kent. Bede records that "filius eius Eadbald" succeeded as king after the death of "Aedilbercti", adding that he refused to embrace Christianity and was also "fornicatione pollutus" because he had "uxorem patris"[287]. A heathen on his accession, Justus Bishop of Rochester fled to France with Mellitus Bishop of London fearing persecution. Laurentius (Augustine's successor at Canterbury) was planning to follow them, but allegedly received a scourging from St Peter in a dream. Bede says that it is recounted that, fearing for himself on seeing Laurentius's flesh wounds, King Eadbald renounced his unlawful marriage and embraced Christianity[288]. This was presumably marked by his grant of land at Northbourne, Kent to St Augustine, by charter dated 618[289]. The king recalled Justus and Mellitus from France, and restored Justus as Bishop of Rochester. Mellitus succeeded Laurentius as Archbishop of Canterbury in [619], and Justus succeeded Mellitus at Canterbury in 624[290]. During the period of Bishop Honorius, who succeeded Justus, the church at Canterbury consolidated its position and Christianity became firmly established in Kent under the patronage of King Eadbald. Eadbald was also responsible for minting the first gold coins in London[291], maybe as a result of Frankish influences through his wife. Bede records that "Honorio archiepiscopo et rege Eadbaldo" received with honour Paulinus and "regina Aedilberge" after they fled to Kent following the battle of Hatfield Chase in 633[292]. According to Stenton[293], the year of King Eadbald's death is recorded in the annals of the church of Salzburg, but not in any English source. His death is, however, referred to in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[294]. Bede records the death in 640 of "Eadbald rex Cantuariorum"[295]. m firstly (repudiated [618]) as her second husband, his stepmother, ---, widow of ÆTHELBERHT King of Kent, daughter of --- (-after [618]). Her second marriage is confirmed by Bede who records that "filius eius Eadbald" succeeded as king after the death of "Aedilbercti", adding that he refused to embrace Christianity and was also "fornicatione pollutus" because he had "uxorem patris", adding in a later passage that her husband was persuaded to repudiate her when he was converted to Christianity[296]. m secondly (after [618]) EMMA of the Franks, daughter of [CHLOTHACHAR II King of the Franks & his first wife Adaltrudis]. "Emma Francorum regis filia et regis Eadbaldi copula" subscribed her husband's 618 charter[297]. Although Emma seems an unlikely name for a Merovingian princess, given the more complex names which are typical of the family, Settipani suggests that it is the diminutive of a name containing a root similar to "Ermen-", like Ermenberga or Ermentrudis, which would also explain the root "Eormen-" in her son's name[298]. Stenton says[299] that there seems no doubt that Eadbald's second wife belonged to the Frankish royal house but that her parentage has not been ascertained. Werner suggests[300] that she was the daughter of Erchinoald, maior domus of the palace of Neustria, linking the name root "Eorcen-" with "Erchin-". Settipani[301] identifies Emma's parents as shown above, seemingly because he eliminates all other possible couples from the known members of the Merovingian royal family from a chronological viewpoint. He prefers a Merovingian ancestry in order to explain the name "Hlothhere" given to Emma's grandson, similar to "Chlothachar" or "Chlothaire", the name of Emma's supposed father. King Eadbald & his [first/second] wife had one child:

a) EORMENRED (-[640/64]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Eormenred and Eorcenberht" as the two sons of King Eadbald, adding that Eorcenberht succeeded their father[302]. Roger of Wendover names "Ermenredum et Erkenbertum" as the two sons of King Eadbald, adding that "junior Erkenbertus" deprived his brother of the throne[303]. If this is correct, it is not clear why he did not succeed as king of Kent on the death of his father. One explanation could be that Eormenred was the son of his father´s scandalous first marriage, and therefore considered unfit for succession. It has been suggested that Eormenred did share power with his brother in Kent[304], although it is not clear on what evidence this suggestion is based. Eormenred's being the older son of his father is consistent with the treatment of his two sons by their cousin King Ecgberht, best explained if they had a superior claim to the throne. Eormenred presumably died before his brother in 664, as there is no mention of his having asserted his claim to succeed at that time. In addition, if he had still been alive, he would presumably have been able to ensure adequate protection for his two sons. m OSLAVA, daughter of --- (-after [664/73]). The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Oslava" as wife of Eormenred and mother of his children[305]. William of Malmesbury records that she was granted land on the Isle of Thanet on which to construct a monastery by her husband's nephew Ecgberht King of Kent on whose orders her two sons had been murdered, presumably in expiation of the crime[306]. Eormenred & his wife had [seven] children:

i) ÆTHELRED [Elbert] (-[664/73], bur ---, transferred [959/75] to Romsey Abbey [307]). The Passio Beatorum Martyrum Ethelredi et Ethelbricti, probably written by Goscelin (mid-11th century), records that Æthelred and Æthelberht were sons of Eormenred, son of Eadbald King of Kent, who were murdered by their first cousin Ecgberht King of Kent[308]. William of Malmesbury names "Ethelred" and "Egelbirt" as sons of King Ecgberht's uncle Eormenred, recording that the brothers were kept at the court of their cousin Ecgberht King of Kent but later murdered on his orders [309].

ii) ÆTHELBERHT (-[664/73], bur Romsey Abbey307). William of Malmesbury names "Ethelred" and "Egelbirt" as sons of King Ecgberht's uncle Eormenred, recording that the brothers were kept at the court of their cousin Ecgberht King of Kent but later murdered on his orders[310].

iii) EORMENBEORG [Domneva] . The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Domneva, Eormenburga, Ermeneburga and Ermengitha" as the four daughters of Eormenred and his wife, adding that "Domneva" was mother of three daughters "Milburga, Mildretha and Milgitha"[311]. There appears to be confusion between the two daughters named Domneva and Eormenbeorg, as William of Malmesbury states that Merewald, son of Penda, married "Ermenburga daughter of Ermenred, brother of…Ercombert"[312]. In addition, Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctam…Eormenbeorgam…regina Merewaldi regis West-Anglorum, sanctam Eormenburgam, sanctam Ætheldrytham, sanctam Eormengytham" as the four daughters of "Eormenredus" and "regina sua Oslava"[313]. The Passio Beatorum Martyrum Ethelredi et Ethelbricti, probably written by Goscelin (mid-11th century), records that, after the murder of Æthelred and Æthelberht sons of Eormenred, Ecgberht King of Kent sent for "their sister Domneva" to pay her compensation and that she built a church on the land granted where daughter Mildreth was a nun[314]. m MEREWALH, ruler of the Magonsætan[315], son of PENDA King of Mercia & his wife Cynewise ---[316].

iv) EREMENEBERG . The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Domneva, Eormenburga, Ermeneburga and Ermengitha" as the four daughters of Eormenred and his wife[317]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctam…Eormenbeorgam…regina Merewaldi regis West-Anglorum, sanctam Eormenburgam, sanctam Ætheldrytham, sanctam Eormengytham" as the four daughters of "Eormenredus" and "regina sua Oslava"[318].

v) ÆTHELDRYTH . Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctam…Eormenbeorgam…regina Merewaldi regis West-Anglorum, sanctam Eormenburgam, sanctam Ætheldrytham, sanctam Eormengytham" as the four daughters of "Eormenredus" and "regina sua Oslava"[319].

vi) ERMENGYTH . The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Domneva, Eormenburga, Ermeneburga and Ermengitha" as the four daughters of Eormenred and his wife[320]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctam…Eormenbeorgam…regina Merewaldi regis West-Anglorum, sanctam Eormenburgam, sanctam Ætheldrytham, sanctam Eormengytham" as the four daughters of "Eormenredus" and "regina sua Oslava"[321].

vii) [ÆBBE [Eafe] (-before 691). The primary source which confirms her parentage has not yet been identified. She founded the monastery of Minster in Thanet, founded by King Ecgberht to atone for the murder of her brothers[322].

King Eadbald & his second wife had [two] children:

b) EORCENBERHT ([620/25]-14 Jul 664). Bede records that "Earconbercto filio" succeeded after the death of "Eadbald rex Cantuariorum" in 640 and reigned for twenty-four years[323]. He succeeded his father in 640 as EORCENBERHT King of Kent.

- see below.

c) [EANSWITH . The life of St Eanswith cannot now be traced to any earlier authority than John of Tinmouth, who wrote in the second quarter of the 14th century[324]. His De sancta Eanswida virgine et abbatissa names "rex Cancie…Edbaldus" and "Emma regis Francorum filia" as parents of "Ermenredum et Ercombertum et filiam Eanswidam", adding that Eanswith refused to marry and retired to Folkestone where her father built a church dedicated to St Peter[325].]

EORCENBERHT 640-664, HLOTHHERE 673-685

EORCENBERHT, son of EADBALD King of Kent & his second wife Emma of the Franks ([620/25]-14 Jul 664). Bede records that "Earconbercto filio" succeeded after the death of "Eadbald rex Cantuariorum" in 640 and reigned for twenty-four years[326]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Eormenred and Eorcenberht" as the two sons of King Eadbald, adding that Eorcenberht succeeded their father[327]. Roger of Wendover names "Ermenredum et Erkenbertum" as the two sons of King Eadbald, adding that "junior Erkenbertus" deprived his brother of the throne[328]. He succeeded his father in 640 as EORCENBERHT King of Kent. Bede records that he was the first English king to order the destruction of idols throughout his kingdom [329]. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he was the first English king to enforce the observance of Lent[330]. Bede records the death "pridie Id Jul" of "Erconberct rex Cantuariorum", no year stated[331]. He dates the event to 664 in his general chronology[332].

m ([640/45]) SEAXBURG, daughter of ANNA King of the East Anglians & his [first] wife --- (-after 695). Bede records that "Annae regis Orientalium Anglorum…filia maior Sexburg" married "Earconbercti regis Cantuariorum"[333]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Seaxburh, daughter of Anna king of the East Angles", as mother of Eorcengota[334]. Bede records that "soror eius Sexburg" succeeded "Aedilthrydam, filiam Anna regis Orientalium Anglorum" as abbess of Ely, adding that she planned to remove her sister´s remains sixteen years after she died but found that the body was uncorrupted when the coffin was opened[335].

King Eorcenberht & his wife had five children:

1. ECGBERHT ([640/45]-1 Jul 673). Bede records that "Ecgberto filio" succeeded on the death of "Erconberct rex Cantuariorum" and reigned for nine years[336]. He succeeded his father in 664 as ECGBERHT King of Kent.

- see below.

2. HLOTHHERE (-killed in battle 6 Feb 685). Bede records that "Cantiam…regem Hlotheri" was "filius sororis Aedilthrydæ reginæ"[337]. He succeeded his brother in 673 as HLOTHHERE King of Kent. According to William of Malmesbury, he is alleged to have "ridiculed the notion" of holding up his cousins Æthelred and Æthelberht, murdered on the orders of his older brother, as martyrs[338]. "Lotharius rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Stodmarsh, Kent to St Augustine by charter dated 1 Apr 675[339]. Bede records that "Aedilred rex Merciorum" ravaged Kent with a powerful army in 676 and destroyed "civitatem…Hrofi" [Rochester][340]. His succession was challenged by his nephew Eadric. The dating clause of an instrument presented by Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury to the Council of Hatfield, dated "XV Kal Oct" [680], refers to the seventh year of "Hlothario rege Cantuariorum"[341]. Bede records the death "VIII Id Feb" in 685 of "Hlotheri Cantuariorum rex" after reigning for twelve years, mortally wounded "in pugna Australium Saxonum" against "Edric filius Ecgberti", adding that he had succeeded "Ecgbertum fratrem suum" (who had reigned for eight years) as king[342]. The Annales Lindisfarnenses et Cantuarienses record the death "685 VII Id Feb" of "Hlotheri frater Ecberti Cantuariorum"[343].

3. EORCENGOTA. Bede names "Earcongatam" as daughter of "Annae regis Orientalium Anglorum…filia maior Sexburg" and her husband "Earconbercti regis Cantuariorum", adding in an earlier passage that she lived as a nun in "in regione Francorum…monasterio…in Brige" [Farmoutiers-en-Brie] built by "abbatissa…Fara", and describing her good works[344]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes her as "a holy virgin and a remarkable person"[345].

4. EORMENHILD (-bur Ely). William of Malmesbury names "Ercongota and Ermenilda" as the two daughters of King Eorcenberht & his wife, recording Eormenhild's marriage Wulfhere King of Mercia, and her burial at Ely where she was abbess after her mother[346]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies also record that the second daughter of "regis Erconberht ac Sexburgæ…sancta Eormengilda" married "Wlferi regis Merciorum"[347]. m WULFHERE King of Mercia, son of PENDA King of Mercia & his wife Cynewise ([638/39]-675).

ECGBERHT 664-673, EADRIC 685-686, WIHTRED 690-725, EADBERHT 725-762, ÆTHELBERHT II 748-762, EALRICH 762

ECGBERHT, son of EORCENBERHT King of Kent & his wife Seaxburg of the East Anglians ([640/45]-1 Jul 673). Bede records that "Ecgberto filio" succeeded on the death of "Erconberct rex Cantuariorum" and reigned for nine years[348]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Ecgberht as son of Eorcenberht when recording that he succeeded his father[349]. He succeeded his father in 664 as ECGBERHT King of Kent. He ordered the murder of his first cousins Æthelred and Æthelberht, sons of his father's brother Eormenred[350]. Bede records that, together with Oswiu King of Northumbria, he chose Wighard to succeed Deusdedit as Archbishop of Canterbury in 667, but the archbishop-elect died of plague in Rome immediately after his consecration by Pope Vitalian. King Ecgberht facilitated the arrival in England in 669 of Theodore, the successor chosen by the Pope, who became a powerful church leader after the first synod of the whole English church which met at Hertford 26 Sep 672 until he died 19 Sep 690[351]. Building on the work of his predecessors, King Ecgberht presided over the adoption of new silver penny coinage[352]. King Ecgberht founded Chertsey abbey, implying Kentish control over parts at least of Surrey. Bede, in his general chronology, records the death in 673 of "Ecgberct rex Cantuariorum"[353]. The Annales Lindisfarnenses et Cantuarienses record the death "673 IV Non Iul" of "Ecbert Cantuariorum rex"[354].

m ---. The name of King Ecgberht's wife is not known.

King Ecgberht had [three] children:

1. [EORMENHILD]. Paulus Diaconus names "Hermelindam ex Saxonum Anglorum genere" as wife of Cunincpert King of the Lombards in Italy[355]. There is no proof that she belonged to the royal family of Kent. However, Kirby suggests that "Hermelinda" is a "Kentish-type name (Eormenhild?)"[356]. If she belonged to the royal house of Kent, it is most likely from a chronological point of view that she was the daughter of King Ecgberht, given her husband's birth estimated in [660]. The connection between the Lombard kings and Kent is first mentioned when the exiled King Perctarit, father of Cunincpert, is reported to have been preparing to move to Kent when he learned that the usurper King Grimoald had died (which is dated to 671)[357]. m CUNINCPERT associate King of the Lombards, son of PERCTARIT King of the Lombards & his wife Rodelinda --- ([660]-700). He succeeded his father in 686 as CUNINCPERT King of the Lombards at Pavia.]

2. EADRIC ([668]-31 Aug 687). Bede names "Edric filius Ecgberti" when recording his rebellion against his uncle King Hlothhere[358]. He consented to a grant of land in Thanet by his uncle King Hlothhere to Abbot Brihtwold in 679[359]. If Eadric's estimated birth date is correct, he was little more than an adolescent at the time of his rebellion. However, it is unlikely that he was born much earlier than this in view of the estimated birth date of his paternal grandmother. Bede records that "Hlotheri Cantuariorum rex" was mortally wounded "in pugna Australium Saxonum" against "Edric filius Ecgberti", adding that the latter succeeded his king but died one year later[360]. He defeated his uncle, presumably with support from the South Saxons, and succeeded in 685 as EADRIC King of Kent. "Eadricus rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Stodmarsh, Kent to St Augustine by charter dated Jun 686[361]. Cædwalla King of Wessex invaded Kent in 686 and installed his brother Mul as King of Kent, although the latter was burned to death with twelve followers by the Kentishmen the following year[362]. The Annales Lindisfarnenses et Cantuarienses record the death "687 II Kal Sep" of "Edric Cantuariorum rex"[363].

3. WIHTRED ([670]-23 Apr 725). Bede records that "Uictred…filius Ecgberti" was unable to succeed immediately on the death of "Edric filius Ecgberti" because "kings of doubtful title, foreigners, for some time wasted the kingdom", before he succeeded in imposing his rule[364]. He was chosen as WIHTRED King of Kent in 690 after the period of chaos which followed the invasion of Kent by Cædwalla King of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that the continuing dispute with Wessex which followed the murder of Mul, brother of King Cædwalla, was settled by payment of "thirty thousands" (the unit of currency is not named) compensation by the Kentishmen to Ine King of Wessex in 694[365]. "Uuihtredus rex Cantie" made a joint grant of land at Thanet, Kent to Æbba abbess of Minster-in-Thanet with "Kinigitha regina coniuge mea" by charter dated 694 [366]. King Wihtred issued a legal code in an assembly of nobles and clergy in 695, relating mainly to matters of ecclesiastical interest including complete exemption from taxation for the church, attributed by Stenton to the powerful influence of Berhtwald (previously abbot of Reculver) who was chosen to succeed Theodore as archbishop of Canterbury 1 Jul 692[367]. "Wihtredus rex Cantie" and his wife Æthelburga granted land at Littlebourne, Kent to St Augustine by charter dated [696 or Mar 711] and "Wihtredus rex Cantuariorum" and his wife Æthelburga granted land to "Eabbe abbatissa" by charter dated 697 [368]. Finally, "Whytredus rex Cantie" and "Werburga regina" jointly made land grants in Kent dated 699 [369]. This rapid succession of charters in which King Wihtred names three different queens suggests the possibility that his marriages were polygamous, although as pointed out below the name of his third wife may have been a misreading for Æthelburga. Bede records the death "IX Kal Mai" in 725 of "Uictred filius Ecgberti rex Cantuariorum" after reigning for 34 years and one half[370]. m firstly KINIGITHA, daughter of ---. "Kinigitha regina coniuge mea" made a joint grant of land at Thanet, Kent with "Uuihtredus rex Cantie" dated 694366. m secondly ÆTHELBURGA, daughter of ---. "Adelburga coniunx mea" and "Æthilburgæ reginæ" subscribed two charters of "Wihtredus rex Cantie" dated 696 and 697368. m thirdly WERBURGA, daughter of ---. "Whytredus rex Cantie" and "Werburga regina" made land grants in Kent dated 699369. It is possible that the name "Werburga" was a copyist's error for "Æthelburga". King Wihtred & his [first/second/third] wife had two children:

a) ÆTHELBERHT (-762[371]). Bede names "Aedilberctum, Eadberctum et Alricum" as the three sons of "Uictred filius Ecgberti rex Cantuariorum"[372]. "Æthelbertus filius regis Wihtredi" granted property to abbess Mildred by charter dated 11 Jul 724, consented to by "Eadbertus ad petitionem germani sui Æthelberti"[373]. He succeeded his father in 725 as ÆTHELBERHT II joint King of Kent, ruling jointly with his brother Eadberht. Yorke says that, according to charter evidence, Æthelberht was the older of the two brothers[374], but this is not apparent from the charters referred to below. "Æthilberht rex Cantuariorum" granted fishing rights and land at Broomhill, Kent to the abbey of Lyminge St Mary by charter dated 741[375]. "Æthilberchtus rex Cantie" subscribed a charter of "Eardulfus rex Cantuariorum" dated 748 which granted land in Kent to the church of Rochester St Andrew's[376]. He continued to rule after the death of his brother Eadberht. "Æthilbertus rex Cantiæ" wrote to Boniface, dated [748/54][377]. "Æthilberhctus rex Cantie" exchanged pasture rights for use of a mill with St Augustine's, Canterbury, by charter dated 762[378]. Canterbury was burned during his reign[379].

b) EADBERHT ([700]-[748] or after [762/63]). Bede names "Aedilberctum, Eadberctum et Alricum" as the three sons of "Uictred filius Ecgberti rex Cantuariorum"[380]. "Æthelbertus filius regis Wihtredi" granted property to abbess Mildred by charter dated 11 Jul 724, consented to by "Eadbertus ad petitionem germani sui Æthelberti"[381]. He succeeded his father in 725 as EADBERHT joint King of Kent, ruling jointly with his brother Æthelberht. "Eadbertus rex Cantuariorum" granted land to "Mildrithe abbatisse" by charter dated 727[382]. "Eadberht rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Stoke-in-Hoo, Kent to bishop Ealdwulf by charter dated 738[383]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records King Eadberht's death in 748[384]. However, there must be some doubt about the accuracy of this date as "Eadbertus rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Monheham, Kent to St Augustine's, Canterbury by charter dated [762/63], and "Eadberht rex Cantiæ" also subscribed a charter of "Sigiræd rex Cantiæ" dated 762[385], although it is possible that these two references relate to a second King Eadberht about whom no other information has been found. Alternatively, they may refer to King Heahbert or King Ecgberht (see below). According to Florence of Worcester´s genealogies, "frater suus Eadberhtus qui et Pren" succeeded on the death of "Æthelberhtum"[386], which would also place Eadberht´s death after [762/63]. However, it is likely that Florence has confused Eadberht, son of Wihtred, both with Ecgberht King of Kent (who succeeded in [765]) and with Eadberht "Præn" King of Kent (who succeeded in [796]), both of whom are shown below. m ---. The name of Eadberht's wife is not known. Eadberht had one child:

i) EARDULF (-after 760). The primary source which confirms his parentage has not yet been identified. He ruled as joint king of Kent with his father and uncle[387]. "Eardulfus rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Petteridge and Lindridge, Kent to Rochester St Andrew's by charter dated 748, subscribed by "Æthilberchtus rex Cantie"[388]. "Æarduulfo rege Cantiæ" wrote a letter to Lullus with Eardulf Bishop of Rochester, dated to [760/78] in the compilation although the basis for this dating is not clear from the text[389].

King Wihtred & his third wife had one child:

c) EALRICH (-after 762). Bede names "Aedilberctum, Eadberctum et Alricum" as the three sons of "Uictred filius Ecgberti rex Cantuariorum"[390]. "Ælrico filio nostro" subscribed his parents' charter dated 699[391]. He succeeded his brother in 762 as EALRICH joint King of Kent. According to William of Malmesbury[392], King Ealrich reigned for thirty four years but this seems unlikely given the likely birth dates of the sons of King Wihtred.

B. KINGS of KENT 686-690

During the period between the invasion of Kent by Cædwalla King of Wessex in 686 and the accession of King Wihtred in 690, three non-Kentish kings are recorded as having ruled in Kent:

MUL 686-687, OSWINE 688-690, SWÆFRED 688-690

MUL of Wessex, son of CŒNBERHT under-King of Wessex & his wife --- (-murdered 687). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Cædwalla and Mul" ("Cædwalla and Mul his brother" in manuscript E) laid waste to Kent and the Isle of Wight in 686[393]. He was installed as MUL King of Kent in 686 by his brother Cædwalla King of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Mul was burned to death in Kent and twelve men with him" in 687, after which "Cædwalla again laid waste to Kent"[394].

OSWINE, son of --- (-after 690). It has been suggested that Oswine was related to the previous royal Kentish house, descended from Eormenred, son of Eadbald King of Kent[395]. He was installed as OSWINE King of eastern Kent in 688 after the abdication of Cædwalla King of Wessex, Swæfred of Essex ruling in western Kent. The fact that "Oswynus rex" subscribed one of the 690 charters of his fellow king Swæfred[396] suggests that the division of power was amicable. Oswine does not appear in the regnal lists of Kent. "Oswynus rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Thanet and Sturry, Kent to Æbba abbess of Minster-in-Thanet under three charters dated 689 and 690 (two)[397]. Æthelred King of Mercia confirmed charters for King Oswine, suggesting Mercian supremacy over Kent[398]. He was deposed in 690 by King Wihtred. No indication has been found of his subsequent fate.

SWÆFRED, son of SÆBBI King of Essex & his wife --- (-704 after 13 Jun[399]). He was installed as SWÆFRED King of western Kent in 688 after the abdication of Cædwalla King of Wessex, Oswine ruling in eastern Kent. Swæfred of Essex's rule in Kent is corroborated by a charter dated 689 under which "Suabhardus rex Cantuariorum" granted land at Thanet and Sturry, Kent to Æbba abbess of Minster-in-Thanet[400]. This charter was subscribed by "Ædilredi regis Merciorum", suggesting that at least the part of Kent ruled by Swæfred was under Mercian influence. "Suabhardus rex Cantuariorum" granted further land at Sturry and Bodsham, Kent to abbess Æbba by charter dated 690[401]. The fact that "Oswynus rex" subscribed the latter charter suggests that the division of power between the two Kentish kings was amicable. King Swæfred was presumably expelled from Kent and returned to Essex in 690 on the accession of Wihtred King of Kent. He succeeded his father in 694 as SWÆFRED joint King of Essex, jointly with his brother. "Sueabræd rex Eastsaxanorum" granted land at Twickenham to bishop Waldhario by charter dated 704, which was subscribed by "Ciolred [rex] Mercensium"[402].

C. KINGS of KENT [762]-825

After the death of King Æthelberht II in 762, there appears to have been a succession of joint kings in Kent. The documentary evidence suggests that they ruled in parallel over different parts of Kent. but the details are too imprecise to make an assessment about the geographic split. As there are only isolated references to these kings in charters, it is not possible to give accurate dates for their reigns or guess about any relationships between them.

SIGERED 762, EANMUND 762, HEAHBERHT 764, ECGBERHT 765-[784], EALHMUND [784]

SIGERED, son of ---. Although nothing is known with certainty about the origins of Sigered, his name suggests a connection with the royal house of Essex. He succeeded in [760/62] as SIGERED King of [part of] Kent. "Sigiræd rex Cantiæ" granted land in Rochester to bishop Eardulf by charter dated 762[403]. "Sigeredus rex dimidie parties provincie Cantuariorum" granted land at Islingham, Kent by charter dated [761/64], which was subscribed by "Eanmundus rex"[404].

EANMUND, son of ---. He succeeded in [762] as EANMUND King of [part of] Kent. "Eanmundus rex" subscribed a charter of "Sigeredus rex dimidie parties provincie Cantuariorum" dated [761/64][405]. Offa King of Mercia appears to have taken control of Kent in 764 when he re-granted in his own name land which King Sigered and King Eanmund had previously granted to the church of Rochester.

HEAHBERHT, son of ---. He succeeded in [764] as HEAHBERHT King of Kent. "Hehberhti regis Cantie" subscribed the charter of "Ecgberhtus rex Cantie" dated 765 which granted land at Rochester, Kent to bishop Eardulf[406]. The charters of Æthelbald King of Mercia dated 736 and 758 which are subscribed by "Heardberhti frater atque dux præfati regis" and "Heardberhti"[407] suggest that this may have been the same person as Heahberht King of Kent. "Eadbertus rex Cantuariorum", who granted land at Monheham, Kent to St Augustine's, Canterbury by charter dated [762/63], and "Eadberht rex Cantiæ" who subscribed a charter of "Sigiræd rex Cantiæ" dated 762, may be identifiable with Heahberht, although this is only one of the possibilities (as discussed above under King Eadberht)[408]. "Heaberhtus rex" subscribed the charter of "Egcberth rex Cantie" dated 765 which granted land at Halling, Kent to bishop Dioran[409]. Silver coins were minted in the name of King Heahberht[410].

ECGBERHT, son of --- (-779 or after). "Eadbertus rex Cantuariorum", who granted land at Monheham, Kent to St Augustine's, Canterbury by charter dated [762/63], and "Eadberht rex Cantiæ" who subscribed a charter of "Sigiræd rex Cantiæ" dated 762, may be identifiable with Ecgberht, although this is only one of the possibilities (as discussed above under King Eadberht)[411]. He succeeded in [765] as ECGBERHT King of Kent. "Ecgberhtus rex Cantie" granted land at Rochester, Kent to bishop Eardulf by charter dated 765, subscribed by "Hehberhti regis cantie"[412]. "Egcberth rex Cantie" granted land at Halling, Kent to bishop Dioran by charter dated 765, subscribed by "Heaberhtus rex"[413]. "Offa rex Merciorum" subscribed another charter of "Ecgberhtus rex Cantie" dated 766, under which he granted land at Rochester to bishop Eardulf[414]. "Ecberht rex Cantuariorum" subscribed a charter of "Offa rex Merciorum" dated 772[415]. The latter two references suggest that Kent was under Mercian control at the time, although It is uncertain how long this state of affairs may have lasted. Ecgberht was still king in 778 and 779, the dates of two charters under which "Ecgberhtus rex Cantie" granted land at Bromhey, Kent to "Dioran Hrofensis"[416], although the absence of subscriptions to either charter make it impossible to draw definite conclusions about the relative independence of Kent from Mercia at that time. Kirby suggests[417] that Mercian authority may have been short-lived after [764/65], but the grant by "Offa rex Anglorum" of land at Higham Upshire, Kent to archbishop Jænberht by charter dated 774, without any subscription by a Kentish ruler[418], suggests that Mercia was in full control of Kent at that date. In 776, Mercians and Kentishmen fought at Otford[419]. Although the outcome is not known, Stenton suggests a Mercian defeat is indicated by the subsequent grant of land in Kent in 784 in the name of King Ealhmund (see below)[420]. It is not known when or how King Ecgberht ceased ruling in Kent.

EALHMUND [of Wessex], son of [EAFA & his wife ---] (-after [789]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "rex Ealhmundus" was "in Cantia rex" in 784, adding that "this king Ealhmund was the father of Egbert, the father of Æthelwulf"[421]. He succeeded as EALHMUND King of Kent, in 784 or before. "Ealmundus rex Canciæ" granted land at Sheldwich, Kent to Hwitrede abbot of Reculver by charter dated 784[422]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Ealhmund as son of Eafa, in a late passage which sets out the ancestry of Æthelwulf King of Wessex[423]. However, Ealhmund's predecessor as king of Kent, and Ealhmund's own son, were both named Ecgberht, a name which was not particularly common in any of the Anglo-Saxon royal families. In view of the general practice of name inheritance within the ruling families, and the absence of the name "Ecgberht" from the house of Wessex as recorded in the traditional genealogies, it is not impossible that Ealhmund's origins lay in Kent and not in Wessex. This would of course mean that the usually represented ancestry of Ecgberht King of Wessex would require reconsideration. Mercian involvement in Kentish affairs appears to have increased again in 785-89[424]. Presumably King Ealhmund was deposed as king of Kent by Offa King of Mercia as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that "the Kentishmen … formerly … had been wrongly forced away from their allegiance to [Ecgberht King of Wessex's] kinsmen"[425]. This event may have taken place in 789, the date when King Ealhmund's son Ecgberht is later described as having been expelled from England by Beorhtric King of Wessex and Offa King of Mercia[426].

- see below, Chapter 7.F. KINGS of WESSEX.

EADBERHT 794-798, CUTHRED 798-807, BEALDRED 823-825

EADBERHT, son of --- (-798). Probably the same person as "Odberht", a priest living in exile at the court of Charles I King of the Franks (later Emperor Charlemagne). He was described as "Julian the Apostate" by Pope Leo III[427]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he returned, maybe after the death in 796 of Ecgfrith King of Mercia, and established himself as EADBERHT "Præn" King of Kent[428]. He minted his own coins at Canterbury[429]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 798, Cenwulf King of Mercia raided Kent as far as Romney Marsh, seized King Eadberht, had him blinded and his hands cut off, and led him bound back to Mercia[430].

CUTHRED of Mercia, son of CUTHBERT of Mercia & his wife --- (-[807]). His brother Cenwulf King of Mercia installed him in 798 as CUTHRED King of Kent. "Cuthredus rex Cantiæ" granted land at Ruckinge, Kent to "Aldberhto et Seledrythe abbatissæ" and land at Buckholt, Kent to Wulfredo, under two charters dated 805[431]. "Cuthredus rex cantwariorum" made grants of land at Eythorne, Kent to "Æthelnodo prefecto meo" under another charter dated 805[432]. All three charters were subscribed by "Coenulfi regis Merciorum", suggesting that Kent had once more fallen under Mercian control. Roger of Wendover records the death in 807 of "Cuthredus rex Cantuarensis"[433]. After the death of King Cuthred, Kent became a province of Mercia.

BEALDRED, son of --- (-825 or after). Roger of Wendover records that "Baldredus" succeeded in 807 after the death of "Cuthredus rex Cantuarensis"[434]. He was appointed as BEALDRED under King of Kent, probably by Beornwulf King of Mercia[435]. If this is correct, Bealdred's appointment occurred between 823 and 825, when Beornwulf ruled Mercia. However, William of Malmesbury[436] says that Bealdred "possessed" the kingdom of Kent for eighteen years, indicating an 807 accession from the death of King Cuthred. William of Malmesbury describes King Bealdred as "the abortion of royal dignity"[437]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Bealdred was driven north over the Thames in 825 after Æthelwulf, son of Ecgberht King of Wessex, invaded Kent[438].

Chapter 4. KINGS of MERCIA

The kingdom of Mercia is only mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle from 626, when it records the accession of Penda. Penda´s supposed predecessors are named in the Chronicle only in the passages which set out the supposed early ancestry of the Mercian kings. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name none of the supposed kings of Mercia before the accession of King Penda in 626[443]. Mercia was probably only a province of the kingdom of Northumbria before the accession of King Penda, and he continued to rule under Northumbrian overlordship. However, Penda rebelled and defeated the Northumbrians in 633. Although he appears to have been the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings in England, there appears to be no evidence that he asserted his supremacy over his fellow rulers. King Penda was killed in 654 in an invasion of Northumbria, and the Northumbrians effectively annexed that part of Mercia north of the river Trent after the battle. Mercian autonomy was revived by King Wulfhere, who also imposed his overlordship on Essex and parts of Wessex around the Chilterns. King Æthelbald established Mercian overlordship over all the other southern English kingdoms in the late 720s, but there are indications that he lost control over his realm towards the end of his reign. Civil war broke out in Mercia after his death in 757, although his successor king Offa restored the fortunes of the kingdom. The end of Mercia's ascendancy was marked when Ecgberht King of Wessex defeated Beornwulf King of Mercia in 825. The Danes appropriated the northern part of Mercia in 877, and no further Mercian kings are recorded after King Ceolwulf II in that year.

The alleged descents of the later kings of Mercia after the early 8th century are suspect, for the reasons explained in the Introduction to this document.

A. KINGS of MERCIA 626-716

[CREODA, son of CYNEWALD (-[588/95]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Penda was the son of "Pybba, son of Creoda, son of Creowald…" when recording Penda´s accession[444], but gives no other details about the lives of these alleged ancestors. Henry of Huntingdon names "Crida" as first king in "regnum Merce" but does not date his reign[445]. Roger of Wendover records that "Credda" became king of Mercia in 585[446]. Henry of Huntingdon records that "Crida rex Merce" died (no date stated but dated to [590/95] from the context) and was succeeded by "filius eius Wipha"[447]. Roger of Wendover records the death of "Credda Merciorum rege" in 588[448]. No corroboration has been found in any earlier sources for any of this information.] [Two children:]

1. [PYBBA (-[591/615]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Penda was the son of "Pybba, son of Creoda, son of Creowald…" when recording Penda´s accession[449], but gives no other details about the lives of these alleged ancestors. Henry of Huntingdon records that "Crida rex Merce" died (no date stated but dated to [590/95] from the context) and was succeeded by "filius eius Wipha"[450]. Roger of Wendover records that "Wibba filius eius" succeeded on the death of "Credda Merciorum rege" in 588 and ruled for three years[451].] [Four children:]

a) [PENDA (-killed in battle Winwæd, near Leeds Autumn 654). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records, under 626, that "Penda ruled for thirty years" and was "fifty when he succeeded to the kingdom", adding that he was son of "Pybba, son of Creoda, son of Cynewald…"[452]. Bearing in mind the likely birth dates estimated for some of his sons (see below), his age must be exaggerated in this source. He succeeded in [626] as PENDA King of Mercia, under the overlordship of Northumbria.]

- see below.

b) [EOPPA [Eawa or Offa] (-killed in battle Maserfeld 641). Eoppa is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle only as grandfather of Æthelbald King of Mercia: "Æthelbald…son of Alweo, son of Eawa, son of Pybba"[453].]

- see below, Part B.

c) CYNEBURGA. It is possible that her marriage was part of the "agreement" reached between her brother Penda King of Mercia and Cynegils King of Wessex in 628 after the battle of Cirencester which is referred to in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[454]. Bede records that "Coinualch" repudiated "sorore Pendan regis Merciorum" to marry a second wife[455]. The primary source which confirms her name has not yet been identified. m ([628], repudiated 645) as his first wife, CENWALH of Wessex, son of CYNEGILS King of Wessex (-672). He succeeded his father in 641 as CENWALH King of Wessex. He was expelled from Wessex in 645 by Penda King of Mercia, in revenge for repudiating his wife who was Penda's sister.

d) [daughter . Roger of Wendover records that the mother of "rex Britonum Cadwallo…Cadwaladrus filius eius…juvenem" was "soror Pendæ regis Merciorum" whom Cadwallon married after his alliance with King Penda[456]. However, the passage in this source is confused as it also records the death of King Cadwallon senior in 676. m CADWALLON ap Cadfan King of Gwynedd, son of CADFAN ap Iago & his wife --- (-killed in battle Denisesburn [635]). He joined forces with Penda King of Mercia against Eadwine King of Northumbria at Hatfield Chase in 633[457].

2. [KINEMUND.]

a) [CEARL (-[625]). Henry of Huntingdon records that "Cherlus…consanguineus eius" reigned after "Wippam", undated[458].]

i) CWENBURH (-before [619/23]). Bede names "Quoenburga filia Cearli regis Merciorum" as mother of King Eadwine´s sons "Osfrid et Eadfrid" when recording their baptism with their father, adding that they had both been born during their father´s exile before his accession[459]. Eadwine´s marriage must presumably therefore be dated to before 616, which if correct indicates that the marriage took place before the accession of Cwenburh's father in Mercia. m ([before 616]) as his first wife, EADWINE of Deira, son of ÆLLE King of Deira [Northumbria] (585-killed in battle Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster 12 Oct 633 or 634, bur Whitby Abbey). He succeeded in 617 as EADWINE King of Northumbria.

PENDA 626-654, PEADA 654-656, WULFHERE 657-675, ÆTHELRED 675-704, CENRED 704-709

PENDA, son of PYBBA King of Mercia ([575]-killed in battle Winwæd near Leeds Autumn [654/55]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records, under 626, that "Penda ruled for thirty years" and was "fifty when he succeeded to the kingdom", adding that he was son of "Pybba, son of Creoda, son of Cynewald…"[460]. Bearing in mind the likely birth dates estimated for some of his sons (see below), his age must be exaggerated in this source. He succeeded in [626] as PENDA King of Mercia, under the overlordship of Northumbria. William of Malmesbury records that "he began to attack the neighbouring cities, to infest the confines of the surrounding kings, and to fill everything with terror and confusion"[461]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he fought Cynegils and Cwichelm Kings of Wessex in 628 at Cirencester "and then they came to an agreement"[462]. Bede records that "Caedualla rex Brettonum", helped by "Penda…de region genere Merciorum", rebelled against "Aeduini" [Eadwine King of Northumbria] who was killed in battle "IV Id Oct" in 633 at "Haethfelth", adding that the rebels continued to govern the country with varying success for 22 years[463]. Bede records that "Osuald…rex Nordanhymbrorum" was killed in battle 5 Aug (year not stated) by the same "rege Merciorum" [Penda King of Mercia] who had killed his predecessor [King Eadwine], "in loco…Maserfelth"[464]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates this event to 641[465]. Stenton suggests that the place was probably Oswestry in Shropshire[466]. Although he appears to have been the most powerful king in England at the time, there is no evidence that Penda tried to impose his overlordship on the other kingdoms[467]. In 645, King Penda forced Cenwalh King of Wessex into exile in East Anglia for three years, in revenge for having repudiated his wife, who was Penda's sister[468]. Bede records that "regis Merciorum" [Penda] was killed by "rex Osuiu" near "fluvium Vinuaed", dated in a later passage to "XVII Kal Dec" in the thirteenth year of King Oswiu´s reign[469]. He dates this event to 655 in his general chronology[470]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that, supported by Æthelhere King of the East Angles, King Penda invaded Northumbria in 654 but was killed in battle by King Oswiu[471]. He remained a pagan throughout his life, though tolerated his son's conversion.

m CYNEWISE [Kineswitha] --- (-after 654). Bede records that "alius filius eius Ecgfrid" was a hostage "in provincia Merciorum apud reginam Cynuise" when "rex Osuiu…cum Alchfrido filio" defeated and killed Penda King of Mercia near "fluvium Vinuaed", undated[472]. William of Malmesbury names Kineswitha as the queen of Penda[473].

King Penda & his wife had seven children:

1. PEADA (-murdered [17 Apr] 656[474]). William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Weda, Wulfer, Ethelred, Merewald, Mercelin" as the sons of King Penda & his wife[475]. Bede records that "Peada filio Pendan regis" was baptised by Finan, Bishop of Lindisfarne, at the time of his marriage, dating the event to two years before the death of King Penda[476]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded his father in 654[477] as PEADA King of Mercia, but only ruled south of the river Trent under the overlordship of Oswiu King of Northumbria, his father-in-law. That part of Mercia north of the river Trent was effectively annexed by Northumbria after Penda's defeat. Finan Bishop of Lindisfarne consecrated Diuma in 654 as bishop of a see comprising Mercia, Middle Anglia and Lindsay. Bede records that "Peada" was killed was killed in spring [656] "by the treachery, as is said, of his wife"[478]. After his death, Oswiu King of Northumbria became ruler of the whole of Mercia until 657 when Peada's brother Wulfhere was proclaimed king. m (653) ALHFLÆD [Alehfleda], illegitimate daughter of OSWIU King of Bernicia [Northumbria] & his mistress --- (-after 656). Bede records that "Peada filio Pendan regis" married "Osuiu…filiam eius Alchfledam" on condition that he accepted Christainity[479]. William of Malmesbury states that Peada married the (unnamed) daughter of King Oswiu "on condition of renouncing his idols and embracing Christianity" and that Peada's death was "hastened as they say by the intrigues of his wife"[480]. The primary source which confirms that she was illegitimate has not yet been identified. Bede records that "Peada" was killed was killed in spring [656] "by the treachery, as is said, of his wife"[481].

2. WULFHERE ([638/39]-675). William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Weda, Wulfer, Ethelred, Merewald, Mercelin" as the sons of King Penda & his wife[482]. Bede records that, three years after the death of King Penda, "duces gentis Merciorum Immin et Eafa et Eadberct" set up as king "Uulfhere filio…Pendan adulescente" who they had kept hidden, adding that he reigned for 17 years[483]. Roger of Wendover records that "frater eius Wlfherus" was seventeen years old when he succeeded in 657 following the death of "Peada filius Pendæ"[484]. He was proclaimed WULFHERE King of Mercia in 657, after a rebellion against King Oswiu but William of Malmesbury records that he was "heavily oppressed by the King of the West Saxons" in the early years of his reign[485]. Bede records that Wini Bishop of Winchester found refuge with "regem Merciorum…Uulfheri" after he was expelled from Wessex and purchased the see of London where he remained bishop until he died[486]. He restored the power of Mercia, imposing his overlordship on Essex and occupying part of Wessex around the Chilterns. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that, in 661, King Wulfhere ravaged the Isle of Wight, at that time part of the kingdom of the West Saxons, and gave it to Æthelwalh king of the South Saxons "because Wulfhere had stood sponsor for him at baptism"[487]. According to Bede[488], King Æthelwalh was baptised shortly before 675. If this is correct, King Wulfhere held the Isle of Wight for about fourteen years before giving it to the king of the South Saxons. Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury consecrated Ceadda, previously Bishop of York, as Bishop in Mercia in 669 and established his seat at Lichfield[489]. King Wulfhere invaded Northumbria in 674, but was defeated by King Ecgfrith. "Wulfhere rex Mercianorum" confirmed land grants to Chertsey St Peter's by charter dated 666[490]. "Wulfhere rex Mercentium" granted land at Dillington, Hertfordshire to "Berhferthe propinqs meus" by charter dated 674, subscribed by "Eadbriht princeps" and "Cynred princeps"[491]. Bede, in his general chronology, records the death in 675 of "Uulfheri rex Merciorum" after reigning for seventeen years[492]. m firstly EORMENHILD of Kent, daughter of EORCENBERHT King of Kent & his wife Seaxburg of the East Anglians (-bur Ely). William of Malmesbury names "Ercongota and Ermenilda" as the two daughters of King Eorcenberht & his wife, recording Eormenhild's marriage to Wulfhere King of Mercia, and her burial at Ely where she was abbess after her mother[493]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies also record that the second daughter of "regis Erconberht ac Sexburgæ…sancta Eormengilda" married "Wlferi regis Merciorum"[494]. m secondly EADBURGH, daughter of --- (-[8 Oct] 735, bur Gloucester St Peter). The History of Gloucester St Peter records the grant of land by King Ethelred for the foundation of the monastery of St Peter at Gloucester and the installation of "Keneburgam sororem suam" as abbess, followed by "Eadburga cognata eius…quæ ante fuit regina Wlfredi regis Merciorum"[495]. This is the only reference so far found to this presumably second marriage of King Wulfhere, a later reference in the same source clarifying that she was "Edburga…quondam regina Wlferi regis"[496]. The History of Gloucester St Peter records the death in 735 of abbess "Edburga" and her burial in the monastery[497]. The calendar of Echternach includes "VIII Id Oct Eodburgæ virginis"[498]. [m thirdly EVA, daughter of --- (-767, bur Gloucester St Peter). The History of Gloucester St Peter records the installation of "Eva, quæ fuit uxor et regina Wolferi filii Pendæ regis"" as abbess of the monastery in succession to Eadburgh (also recorded in the same source as the wife of King Wulfhere), her death in 767, and burial in the monastery[499]. This provides the only reference so far identified to this supposed third wife of King Wuflhere, but the reported date of her death indicates that it must be treated with considerable suspicion. If she was in fact the king's wife, the marriage must have taken place when she was still an infant, and it must also have been polygamous as no reference has been found to the king having repudiated Eadburgh. In any case, her name is atypical of contemporary Anglo-Saxon names.] King Wulfhere & his [first/second] wife had [three] children:

a) [EADBERHT . "Eadbriht princeps" subscribed a charter of "Wulfhere rex Merciorum" dated 674[500]. There is no indication of his relationship, if any, with King Wulfhere but the possibility of his being a close family member should be considered, bearing in mind particularly that the filial relationship of the king's son Cenred is not specified in the same charter. As Eadberht's name is listed before Cenred's in the charter, it is likely that he enjoyed some seniority of position. If the two were brothers, his being listed first would indicate that he was the older of the two. However, it is also possible that "seniority" may indicate priority in the future succession, in which case Eadberht may have been Wulfhere's brother.]

b) CENRED (-after 709). William of Malmesbury names "Kenred and Waraburga" as the children of King Wulfhere & his wife[501]. "Cynred princeps" subscribed a charter of "Wulfhere rex Merciorum" dated 674[502]. Bede names "Coenredi" as successor of Æthelred King of Mercia but does not state the relationship between the two[503]. He succeeded his uncle in 704[504] as CENRED King of Mercia. "Coenredus [rex] Mercensium" subscribed a charter of "Sueabræd rex Eastsaxanorum" dated 704 together with "Ciolred [rex] Mercensium"[505], which appears to indicate that King Cenred ruled jointly with his cousin. "Kenredus rex Merciorum" granted land at Abbot's Morton, Worcester to Ecgwin bishop of the Hwicce by charter dated 708[506]. During his reign there were large-scale raids over Mercia by the Welsh, which may have prompted the construction of Wat's dyke[507]. Bede records that "Coinred [rex] Merciorum" abdicated in the fourth year of the reign of Osred King of Northumbria and went to Rome and became a monk[508]. In his general chronology, he dates this event to 709[509]. He was canonised.

c) WEREBURGH (-Threckingham, Lincolnshire, bur Chester). William of Malmesbury names "Kenred and Waraburga" as the children of King Wulfhere & his wife, specifying that the latter was "a most holy virgin who lies buried at Chester"[510], where her body was transferred to save it from "the marauding Danes"[511]. The Vita Werbergæ records the life of the daughter of King Wulfhere, names her supposed brothers "Wulfad and Rufinus" (allegedly killed by their father after supporting Wereburgh´s refusal to marry), and records that Wereburgh joined her aunt at Ely where she was joined by her mother "Ermenilda" after the death of her father[512]. The existence of the two supposed brothers is unlikely, given the birth date of Wulfhere estimated above. In addition, the charters quoted above show that Eormenhild could not have been the wife of King Wulfhere when he died. Canonised, her feast day is 3 Feb[513].

3. ÆTHELRED (-after 709, bur Bardney Abbey[514]). William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Weda, Wulfer, Ethelred, Merewald, Mercelin" as the sons of King Penda & his wife[515]. His paternity is corroborated by the charter of his son King Ceolred dated 710, which names the latter "Cheolrudus Æthelredi Pende"[516]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded his brother in 675[517] as ÆTHELRED King of Mercia. Bede records that "Aedilred rex Merciorum" ravaged Kent with a powerful army in 676 and destroyed "civitatem…Hrofi" [Rochester][518]. Bede records a battle between "Aedilredum regem Merciorum" and "Ecgfridi [rex]", in the ninth year of the reign of the latter, "iuxta fluvium Treanta" in which "Aelfuini frater regis Ecgfridi" was killed[519]. In his general chronology, he dates this event to 679[520]. King Æthelred recaptured Lindsay for Mercia. "Ethelredus rex Merciorum" granted land at Gloucester to "Osrico et Oswaldo fratri eius in provincial Huicciorum" by charter dated [671 for 679?], for the purposes of founding a minster[521]. The History of Gloucester St Peter records the grant of land by King Ethelred for the foundation of the monastery of St Peter at Gloucester and the installation of "Keneburgam sororem suam" as abbess, followed by "Eadburga cognata eius…quæ ante fuit regina Wlfredi regis Merciorum"[522]. "Ædelredus rex" granted land at Tetbury to abbot Aldhelm by charter dated [680 for 681][523]. The dating clause of an instrument presented by Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury to the Council of Hatfield, dated "XV Kal Oct" [680], refers to the sixth year of "Aedilredo rege Mercinensium"[524]. "Æthelred rex Mercensium" granted land at Henbury to bishop Otforo by charter dated [691/99][525]. A close relationship between Mercia and Wessex during the late 680s is suggested by "Ethelridi regis Merciorum" subscribing a charter of "Ine rex Westsaxonum" dated 687 which granted land in Berkshire to abbot Hean[526]. It is likely that Mercia exercised influence over part of Kent, during the period of disorder which followed the invasion by Cædwalla King of Wessex in 686, as suggested by "Ædilredi regis Merciorum" subscribing a charter issued by "Suabhardus rex Cantuariorum" dated 689[527]. Wilfrid, expelled as Bishop of Ripon by Aldfrith King of Northumbria, sought refuge in Mercia. King Æthelred founded Abingdon Abbey. m (before 679) OSTHRYTH of Northumbria, daughter of OSWIU King of Northumbria & his second wife Eanflæd of Deira [Northumbria] (-murdered 697, bur Bardney Abbey). Bede records that "Aedilredum regem Merciorum" married "Aelfuini frater regis Ecgfridi…sororem eius…Osthryd", dated to before the battle in which her brother Ælfwine was killed[528]. The Vita Wilfridi refers to the wife of King Æthelred as "soror Ecgfridi regis" but does not name her[529]. Alcuin's poem names "regis Edelredi regina Osthfrida…Oswaldi sancti…filia fratris"[530]. William of Malmesbury names "Ostgida sister of Egfrid king of the Northumbrians" as the wife of King Æthelred[531]. Bede records that the bones of Oswald King of Northumbria were transferred to "monasterium…in provincie Landissi…Beardaneu" by "reginæ Merciorum Osthrydæ…filia fratris eius…Osuiu…cum viro suo Aedilredo"[532]. Bede, in his general chronology, records that "Osthryd regina" was killed "a suis, id est Merciorum" in 697[533]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that she was killed by the Mercians[534]. King Æthelred & his wife had one son:

a) CEOLRED (-716, bur Lichfield[535]). Bede records that "Ceolredo filio Aedilredi" succeeded when "Coinred [rex] Merciorum" abdicated[536]. William of Malmesbury names Ceolred as the son of King Æthelred & his wife[537]. This paternity is corroborated by the charter dated 710 in which he is named "Cheolrudus Æthelredi Pende"540. He succeeded his cousin in 709[538] as CEOLRED King of Mercia. "Ciolred [rex] Mercensium" subscribed a charter of "Sueabræd rex Eastsaxanorum" dated 704 together with "Coenredus rex Mercensium"[539], which appears to provide clear proof of King Ceolred's succession as joint king, probably at the same time as his cousin's accession. "Cheolrudus Æthelredi Pende" granted land in Warwickshire to the abbey of Evesham St Mary by charter dated 710 [540]. A dissolute youth who oppressed monasteries, he died after falling into a frenzied fit "when feasting in splendour among his companions" according to St Boniface[541]. Bede, in his general chronology, records that "rex Merciorum Ceolred" died in 716[542].

4. MEREWALD . William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Weda, Wulfer, Ethelred, Merewald, Mercelin" as the sons of King Penda & his wife[543]. He is also named as the fourth son of King Penda in Florence of Worcester´s genealogies[544]. m EORMENBEORG of Kent, daughter of EORMENRED of Kent & his wife Oslafa ---. The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Domneva, Eormenburga, Ermeneburga and Ermengitha" as the four daughters of Eormenred and his wife, adding that "Domneva" was mother of three daughters "Milburga, Mildretha and Milgitha"[545]. There appears to be confusion between the two daughters named Domneva and Eormenbeorg, as William of Malmesbury states that Merewald, son of Penda, married "Ermenburga daughter of Ermenred, brother of…Ercombert"[546]. In addition, Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "sanctam…Eormenbeorgam…regina Merewaldi regis West-Anglorum, sanctam Eormenburgam, sanctam Ætheldrytham, sanctam Eormengytham" as the four daughters of "Eormenredus" and "regina sua Oslava"[547]. The Passio Beatorum Martyrum Ethelredi et Ethelbricti, probably written by Goscelin (mid-11th century), records that, after the murder of Æthelred and Æthelberht sons of Eormenred, Ecgberht King of Kent sent for "their sister Domneva" to pay her compensation and that she built a church on the land granted where daughter Mildreth was a nun[548]. Merewalh & his wife had four children:

a) MILDTHRYTH (-727 or after, bur Kent St Augustine). The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Milburga, Mildretha and Milgitha" as the three daughters of "Domneva" daughter of Eormenred[549]. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Milburga…Mildritha…Mildritha [Mildgytha]" as the three daughters of Merewald & his wife, specifying that the first named Mildritha was buried in Kent at the monastery of St Augustine[550]. She succeeded her maternal aunt as abbess of Minster in Thanet before 691, and became the subject of the Mildthrith Legend. "Wythredus rex Cantuariorum" granted privileges for Minster-in-Thanet to "Mildrythe abbatisse" by charter dated 696[551]. "Eadbertus rex Cantuariorum" granted land to "Mildrithe abbattisse" by charter dated 727[552].

b) MILDBURG (-bur Weneloc). The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Milburga, Mildretha and Milgitha" as the three daughters of "Domneva" daughter of Eormenred[553]. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Milburga…Mildritha…Mildritha [Mildgytha]" as the three daughters of Merewald & his wife, specifying that Mildburg was buried at Weneloc[554]. She founded the monastery of Much Wenlock.

c) MILDGYTH . The Vitæ…Virginis Mildrethæ, written by Goscelin (mid- to late-11th century), names "Milburga, Mildretha and Milgitha" as the three daughters of "Domneva" daughter of Eormenred[555]. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Milburga…Mildritha…Mildritha [Mildgytha]" as the three daughters of Merewald & his wife[556]. Nun at Eastry in Kent.

d) MEREFIN . William of Malmesbury names Merefin as the son of Merewald & his wife[557]. He is also named as the son of Merewalh and his wife in Florence of Worcester´s genealogies[558].

5. MERCELIN. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Weda, Wulfer, Ethelred, Merewald, Mercelin" as the sons of King Penda & his wife[559]. He is also named as the fifth son of King Penda in Florence of Worcester´s genealogies[560]. m ---. The name of Mercelin's wife is not known. Mercelin & his wife had [one possible child]:

a) [BERHTWALD . The Vita Wilfridi names "Berhtwald filium fratris Aedilredi regis Merciorum"[561]. Although Berhtwald's father is not named in the source, Mercelin is the most likely candidate. It is likely that other sources would have named Berhtwald if he had been the son of either King Peada or King Wulfhere, and William of Malmesbury apparently gives a complete list of the children of Merewald.]

6. CYNEBURGA (-[680][562]). Bede records that "filio regis Osuiu…Alchfrido" married "sororem [Peadæ]…Cyniburgam, filiam Pendan regis"[563]. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Kineburga and Kineswitha" as the daughters of King Penda & his wife, commenting that they were "both distinguished for inviolable chastity"[564]. He also records the marriage of Cyneburga and "Alfrid king of the Northumbrians" but says that "after a time, disgusted with wedlock, took the habit of a nun in the monastery which her brothers Wulfer and Æthelred had founded"[565]. She was abbess at Castor in Northamptonshire. She was canonised, her feast day is 6 Mar[566]. m ALHFRITH under-King of Deira, son of OSWIU King of Northumbria & his first wife Riemmelth of Rheged (-[664/69]).

7. CYNESWITH [Cyneswide]. William of Malmesbury names (in order) "Kineburga and Kineswitha" as the daughters of King Penda & his wife, commenting that they were "both distinguished for inviolable chastity"[567]. She is also named as the younger daughter of King Penda in Florence of Worcester´s genealogies[568]. She was canonised.

8. [--- . A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex Historia quam mutiosumsi a D^o Garterio", suggests a family relationship between King Æthelred and the brothers Oswald and Osric, rulers of the Hwicce, when it records that "duo fratribus Osuualdo et Ostrico…regis…Athelredi ministries nepotibus" founded the monasteries of "Persora" and "Glovernia" respectively in [680][569]. The document is undated, but includes entries until the late-14th century, although it is not known what earlier sources provided for the basis for the earliest entries. It is not known whether "nepotibus" in this document should be translated as nephews, but if that is correct the mother of the two brothers would have been the daughter of King Penda. One possibility is that she was the same person as one of his known daughters Cyneburga, later wife of Alhfrith under-King of Deira, or Cyneswith. The name of her daughter, Kyneburga, also suggests a close family relationship with the kings of Mercia. m --- of the Hwicce, son of ---.] Two children:

It is not known how the following family was related to the kings of Mercia but the reference to their belonging to the "Iclings" suggests that there was a connection.

1. PENWALD . Felix´s Vita Guthlaci names "Penwald…of the oldest and noblest family [of Mercia] who were named Iclings" as the father of St. Guthlac, adding that he lived "in the days of Æthelred…king of the Mercians" [late 7th, early 8th century][570]. m TETTE, daughter of ---. Felix´s Vita Guthlaci names "Tette" as the wife of Penwald and mother of St. Guthlac[571]. Penwald & his wife had two children:

a) GUTHLAC ([672/73]-Crowland 11 Apr 714). Felix´s Vita Guthlaci names "Guthlac" as the son of Penwald and his wife, adding that he entered the monastery of "Hrypadun…under abbess Ælfthrytha" before becoming a hermit at Crowland when he was twenty-six years old[572]. Felix´s Vita Guthlaci records that Guthlac died "after…serving God for fifteen years…on Wednesday…of Easter week" as the wife of Penwald and mother of St. Guthlac[573]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the death of "St Guthlac" in 714[574].

b) PEGE (-after 714). Felix´s Vita Guthlaci refers to Guthlac´s sister "Pege" who buried her brother´s body[575].

B. KINGS of MERCIA 716-796

ÆTHELBALD 716-757, BEORNRED 757

[EOPPA [Eowa or Offa], son of PYBBA King of Mercia (-killed in battle Maserfeld 641). Eoppa is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle only as grandfather of Æthelbald King of Mercia: "Æthelbald…son of Alweo, son of Eawa, son of Pybba"[576].] However, the absence of any information about the lives of either Eoppa or his son suggests that this descent may have been fabricated.]

1. [ALWIH [Alweo]. Eoppa is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle only as grandfather of Æthelbald King of Mercia: "Æthelbald…son of Alweo, son of Eawa, son of Pybba"[577]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland names "the Clito Ethelbald" as "great nephew of Penda, through Alwy, his brother"[578], which ignores Eoppa.]

a) ÆTHELBALD (-murdered Seckington, near Tamworth 757, bur Repton[579]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Æthelbald as the son of Alweo when recording his accession[580]. He was expelled from Mercia by King Ceolred, whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded in 716[581] as ÆTHELBALD King of Mercia. Following the death of Wihtred King of Kent in 725 and the abdication of Ine King of Wessex in 726, King Æthelbald was able to establish Mercian overlordship over all the other southern English kingdoms. "Æthildbold rex Mercensium" granted land at Acton Beauchamp, Herefordshire to Buca by charter dated 727[582]. Bede, in his general chronology, records the consecration of Archbishop Tatuin in the fifteenth year of "Aedilbaldo rex Merciorum" in 731[583]. "Ethilbald rex Merciorum" granted land in Worcester to "Cyneberht comes" by charter dated 736, subscribed by "Heardberht frater atque dux præfati regis"[584]. The Continuator of Bede records that "Aedilbaldus rex Merciorum" devastated part of Northumbria in 740 while "rex…Eadberctus" was away with his army fighting the Picts[585]. "Ethelbaldi rex Merciorum" granted the remission of half the toll due on a ship to abbess Eadburga by charter dated 748[586]. He captured Somerton in 733[587]. Boniface wrote letters to Æthelbald King of Mercia dated [745/46] and [746/47][588]. In 749, he freed churches of all public burdens except the fundamental duties of repairing bridges and maintaining fortresses, possibly in reaction to Boniface's reproaches of his dissolute way of life[589]. The Continuator of Bede records that "Cudretus rex Occidentalium Saxonum" rebelled against "Aedilbaldum regem et Oengusum" in 750[590]. Towards the end of his reign, there are signs of his losing control over his realm: the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Cuthred King of Wessex made war on Mercia in 740/41[591] and in 752 at Beorhfeord, putting King Æthelbald to flight[592]. Ipswich in East Anglia appears to have expanded as a trading centre, and Mercian territory must have been lost in the west to provoke the later construction of massive defence fortifications[593]. He is described as "Æthilbald rex non solum Mercensium" when he granted land at Tockinham, Wiltshire to abbot Eanberht by charter dated 757, subscribed by "Cynulf rex Uuest Saxsorum" and "Heardberhti"[594]. The Continuator of Bede records that "Aedilbaldus rex Merciorum" was murdered "a suis tutoribus" in 757[595]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record that Æthelbaldus was killed by "Beornedus tyrannus in Secgeswalde"[596]. Civil war broke out in Mercia following his death. m (repudiated before 745) ---. The name of King Æthelbald's wife is not known. The king deserted his wife to "live in guilty intercourse with adulteresses and nuns" according to the letter from Boniface dated [745/46][597]. It is possible that she was named WERBURGH, as Simeon of Durham records the death in 783 of "Werburhg formerly queen of the Mercians then abbess"[598] who has not been linked to another king of Mercia.

b) HEARDBERHT (-after 758). "Heardberhti frater atque dux præfati regis" and "Heardberhti" subscribed charters of Æthelbald King of Mercia in 736 and 758[599]. It is an interesting speculation that he may have been the same person as Heahberht King of Kent.

2. [OSMOD [Osulf]. Osmud is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle only as ancestor of Offa King of Mercia: "Offa…son of Thingfrith, son of Eanwulf, son of Osmod, son of Eawa, son of Pybba…"[600]. Nennius's Historia Brittonum names Ossulf, son of Eawa[601].]

a) EANWULF [Eadulf]. Eanwulf is named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle only as ancestor of Offa King of Mercia: "Offa…son of Thingfrith, son of Eanwulf, son of Osmod, son of Eawa, son of Pybba…"[602]. Nennius's Historia Brittonum names Enwulf as son of Ossulf[603]. He received land from King Æthelbald at Westbury and Henbury in the land of the Hwicce. He founded the monastery of Bredon in Worcestershire[604].

i) THINGFRITH [Wingferd]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Thingfrith as son of Eanwulf[605].

- see below.

BEORNRED, son of --- (-after 757). The Continuator of Bede records that "Beornredus" captured the kingdom after "Aedilbaldus rex Merciorum" was murdered "a suis tutoribus" in 757[606]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record that Æthelbaldus was killed by "Beornedus tyrannus in Secgeswalde"[607]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded in 757 as BEORNRED King of Mercia, but was expelled by Offa within a year[608]. The Continuator of Bede records that "Offa" seized "Merciorum regnum" in 757 after "Beornredo" fled[609].

OFFA 757-796, ECGFRITH 796

THINGFRITH, son of EANWULF [Eadulf] of Mercia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Thingfrith as son of Eanwulf[610]. He is also named in one charter of his son King Offa, when the latter was well into his reign and presumably many years after Thingfrith's death. This was not common practice in the charters of reigning monarchs and no explanation has been found for his name being included in the document.

m [MARCELLINA], daughter of ---. Matthew of Paris´s Vitæ Duorum Offarum names "Offa" as son of "Tuinfredus" and "Marcellina", recording that he was initially called "Winefredus" and was deaf and blind since childhood[611]. It is unlikely that this source is anything more than legend. In any case, the Roman name Marcellina is improbable for an Anglo-Saxon queen.

Thingfrith & his wife had one son:

1. OFFA (-29 Jul 796[612]). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Offa as son of Thingfrith[613]. His paternity is proved by his charter dated 777 in which he is named "Offa filius Thingfrith rex Merciorum"[614]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he expelled King Beornred and succeeded in 757[615] as OFFA King of Mercia. The Continuator of Bede records that "Offa" seized "Merciorum regnum" in 757 after "Beornredo" fled[616]. He gained lordship over Kent by 764, when he granted land in Kent to the Bishop of Rochester in his own name, although Kirby suggests that this domination may have been short-lived. Offa's series of Kentish charters resumes in 785, indicating that he had restored control of Kent by then[617]. A similar pattern was followed in Sussex, with a brief period of control in 771, while permanent Mercian annexation was delayed until the late 780s[618]. King Offa appears to have gained control over London, which became an important minting centre for the new silver coins he produced in the 760s and 770s[619]. The titles attributed to King Offa have been the subject of debate. "Offa rex Merciorum" granted land at Pyrton, Oxfordshire to Milred bishop of the Hwicce by charter dated 765[620]. By charter dated 772, "Offa rex Merciorum" granted land at Bexhill, Sussex to bishop Oswald[621]. In contrast, "Offa rex Anglorum" granted land at Higham Upshire, Kent to archbishop Jænberht by charter dated 774[622]. This is an isolated example of Offa's use of a broader title not restricted to Mercia. Kirby does not consider that the epithet means that Offa aspired to lordship over all the Anglo-Saxons or that it necessarily had the same significance as it later had in the 10th century[623]. One explanation is that the wider title was used because the land in question was in Kent, presumably in an area of the neighbouring kingdom over which Mercia was claiming jurisdiction at the time. King Offa reverts to the usual Mercian title by 777, the date of a charter under which "Offa filius Thingfrith rex Merciorum" granted land in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire to the abbey of Evesham St Mary[624]. Whatever title he used, it is clear that Offa became a powerful ruler, demonstrated by his defeat of Cynewulf King of Wessex in 779 when he retook Bensington near Dorchester-on-Thames[625]. The Annales Laurissenses record that in 786 Charles I King of the Franks sent his army to "partibus Brittaniæ" with his missus "Audulfo sinescalco". In the same paragraph, it is clarified that this refers to "Brittania insula" not Brittany[626]. It is not clear in which part of Britain the Frankish army fought. Mercia and Northumbria appear to be the most likely possibilities as other sources record contact between the Franks and these kingdoms towards the end of the 8th century. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that a great church council took place at Chelsea in 787, supervised by papal legates Theophylact Bishop of Todi and George Bishop of Ostia after their visits to Mercia and Northumbria, and presided over by Jaenberht Archbishop of Canterbury, which promulgated decrees reforming the church and at which King Offa agreed to send annual payments to Rome[627]. Offa was also successful in having the papacy raise the Mercian see of Lichfield to archiepiscopal status, although the decision was reversed soon after he died[628]. The construction of the massive "Offa's Dyke", marking the boundary between Mercia and Wales and serving as protection against Welsh harassment of Mercia, is attributed to him[629]. He introduced a heavy penny coinage to conform with contemporary Carolingian developments[630]. For a time, Offa enjoyed close relations with Charles I King of the Franks. The Chronicon Fontanellense records that Charles I King of the Franks proposed a marriage between “Offæ Rege Anglorum sive Merciorum…filiam” and “Carolus iunior”, but that King Offa refused unless “Berta filia Caroli Magni” was also married to his son which was unacceptable to the Frankish king[631]. King Charles ordered an embargo on trade imports from England as a result, although this was not long maintained[632]. King Offa ordered the beheading of Æthelberht King of the East Angles in 794[633], after which East Anglia seems to have been merged into the kingdom of Mercia. Simeon of Durham records the death "VII Kal Aug" of "Offa king of the Mercians"[634]. m CYNETHRYTH, daughter of ---. "Cynethrythe regina" subscribed a charter of "Offa rex Anglorum" dated 774[635]. "Kineswithe regina" subscribed a charter of "Offa filius Thingfrith rex Merciorum" dated 777[636]. King Offa & his wife had four children:

a) ÆLFLÆD. Ælflæd was most likely the daughter of King Offa whose hand Charlemagne requested for his son Charles in [789]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 792 "king Æthelred married again on 29 Sep, and the lady was called Ælfled" but does not give her origin[637]. Simeon of Durham records the marriage in 792 of "King Ethelred" and "Elfled daughter of Offa king of the Mercians" at "Catterick III Kal Oct"[638]. m (Catterick 29 Sep [792 or 794]) as his second wife, ÆTHELRED King of Northumbria, son of ÆTHELWALD "Moll" King of Northumbria (-murdered 18 Apr 796). His death marked the end of Mercian influence in Northumbria.

b) ECGFRITH (-[17 Dec 796][639]). "Ecgferth filius regis" subscribed a charter of "Offa rex Merciorum" dated 794[640]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he was consecrated associate king of the Mercians 787[641], maybe by Hygeberht newly consecrated Archbishop of Lichfield. Stenton suggests that this was the first time a religious element was introduced into the inauguration of an English ruler[642]. This was followed by a "purge" of rival claimants to assure Ecgfrith's smooth accession, lamented by Alcuin[643]. The Chronicon Fontanellense records that Charles I King of the Franks proposed a marriage between “Offæ Rege Anglorum sive Merciorum…filiam” and “Carolus iunior”, but that King Offa refused unless “Berta filia Caroli Magni” was also married to his son which was unacceptable to the Frankish king[644]. King of Kent 785-796. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded his father in 796[645] as ECGFRITH King of Mercia. "Egeferth rex Merciorum" granted land at Huntena to "Æthelmund princeps" (who has not been identified) by charter dated 796[646]. "Egeferth rex Merciorum" granted land in Purton, Wiltshire to abbot Cuthbert by charter dated 796, which was subscribed by "Beorhtrich rex occidentalium Saxonim"[647]. His date of death is an approximation based on the 141 days of his rule, mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[648], projected forward from the supposed date of his father's death. Simeon of Durham records that he died later in the same year as his father[649].

c) EADBURH (-after 802). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the marriage of Beorhtric and "Eadburh daughter of Offa" in 789[650]. According to William of Malmesbury[651], her marriage was arranged as part of King Offa's agreement to betray Ecgberht of Wessex who had sought refuge in Mercia after being expelled by King Beorhtric. "Eadburg regina" subscribed the 796 charter of "Egeferth rex Merciorum"[652]. This suggests that, as sister of the monarch and queen of Wessex, she was associated in some way as ruler with her brother. A domineering queen, she poisoned her adversaries, and maybe also accidentally poisoned her husband, after which she fled to the court of Charlemagne who made her abbess of a monastery from which she was later expelled. Asser records that she died in poverty in Pavia[653]. m (789) BEORHTRIC King of Wessex, son of --- (-802, bur Wareham). No issue. His death marked the end of Mercian influence in Wessex.

d) ÆLFTHRYTH . The De sancto Ethelberto rege et martiro records that "Orientalium Anglorum rex Ethelbertus" refused to marry "Egeonis filiam…Seledridam" but wanted to marry "Offam regem Merciorum…filiam eius…Alftrida"[654]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that "Siward the lord abbot of Croyland" lived for four months in the cell of "the most holy virgin Etheldritha (she was the daughter of Offa, the former king of the Mercians, and wife of the holy martyr Ethelbert, the former king of East Anglia)" while Mercia was overrun by Ecgberht King of Wessex[655]. If this marriage is correct, it was presumably arranged by Ælfthryth's father shortly after Æthelberht's accession in an attempt to form an alliance or subjugate East Anglia. Ælfthryth lived as a recluse at Croyland abbey. m ([790/93], not consummated) ÆTHELBERHT King of East Anglia, son of [ÆTHELRED King of East Anglia & his wife Leoveromia ---] (-beheaded [Sutton Walls, near Hereford] 794, bur Hereford Cathedral).

C. KINGS of MERCIA 796-823

CENWULF 796-821, CEOLWULF I 821-823

Two brothers:

1. CENWULF (-Basingwerk, Flintshire 821, bur Winchcomb, Gloucestershire). He succeeded [his distant cousin] King Ecgfrith in 796 as CENWULF King of Mercia. Simeon of Durham records that "Coenuulf the father of St Kenelm" succeeded "Ecgfrith" as king of Mercia[656]. Kent revolted in 796, Eadberht "Præn" installing himself as king of Kent. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that King Cenwulf suppressed the rebellion vigorously, led Eadberht "Praen" bound back to Mercia[657], and appointed his younger brother Cuthred as under-king of Kent in 798. He failed to obtain papal support for establishing London as an archiepiscopal see. He revived Mercian expansion into Wales, killed Caradog ap Meirion King of Gwynedd in 798, and raided the district between Clwyd and the Elwy in 816 and Dyfed in 818-819. Eardwulf King of Northumbria invaded Mercia in 801, but peace was imposed following mediation of English bishops and nobles[658]. "Cenuulf rex merciorum" granted freedoms to Glastonbury Abbey by charter dated 797[659]. Mercian control over Kent, at least during the period 801-811, is demonstrated by "Coenuulfus rex Merciorum" making a joint grant of land in Kent with "Cuthredo fratre meo rege Cantuariorum" dated 801[660], "Coenulfi regis Merciorum" subscribing three charters of "Cuthredus rex Cantiæ" dated 805[661], and "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" granting land at Rochester, Kent to bishop Beornmod by charter dated 811 (subscribed by, among others, "Sigered rex", "Beornnoth dux" and "Eadberht dux", none of whom have been identified)[662]. A dispute with Wulfred Archbishop of Canterbury concerning the king's right to make certain religious appointments appears to have led to the former's suspension from office from 817 to 821[663]. [m firstly ---. The evident age difference between King Cenwulf's known children Cwenthryth and Cynehelm suggests that they were probably born from different marriages although this has not been corroborated from any primary source so far consulted.] m [secondly] ÆLTHRYTH, daughter of --- (-821 or after). "Æthrith/Ælbthryth regina" subscribed charters of King Cenwulf in 804 and 811, and "Eldredia regina" a charter dated 821[664]. King Cenwulf & his [first] wife had [two] children:

a) CWENTHRYTH . William of Malmesbury names "Quendrida" as the older sister of St Kenelm, whom his father had entrusted to this sister for his education[665]. Roger of Wendover names "Quendridam et Burgenildam" as the daughters of "Kenulfus…[et[ regina sua Alfritha"[666]. As pointed out above, the age difference between Cwenthryth and her brother Cynehelm suggests that they may not have shared the same mother. "Quoenthryth filia regis" subscribed a charter of "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" dated 811[667]. She was appointed Abbess of Minster-in-Thanet, by her father. William of Malmesbury states that she murdered her brother Cynehelm[668].

b) [BURGENILDA . Roger of Wendover names "Quendridam et Burgenildam" as the daughters of "Kenulfus…[et[ regina sua Alfritha"[669].

King Cenwulf & his [second] wife had [three] children:

c) CYNEHELM [Kenelme] ([806/11]-murdered [821/22], bur [Winchcombe, Gloucestershire]). He is named as son of King Cenwulf by William of Malmesbury[670]. "Cynehelm dux" subscribed the charter of "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" dated 811[671]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that "his son Saint Kenelm, a boy then seven years old" succeeded "Kenulph…king of the Mercians" but was murdered "through the treachery of his sister Quendreda" within a few months of the death of his father and buried beside his father[672], although his age must be underestimated in this source if he is the same person who subscribed the 811 charter of King Cenwulf. His paternity is corroborated by "Kenelmus filius regis" subscribing a charter of "Kenulfus rex Merciorum" dated 821[673]. William of Malmesbury states that he was brought up by his sister Cwenthryth, but that she ordered his murder[674]. Goscelin of Saint-Bertin wrote his biography Vita S. Kenelmi in the mid-1060s[675].

d) [EADBERHT . "Eadberht dux" subscribed the charter of "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" dated 811, his name listed directly after "Cynehelm dux" and before "Cyneberht propinquo regis"[676], which suggests a closer relationship to the king than "propinquo", possibly a younger son.]

e) [EADBURGA. Asser records that Alfred's mother-in-law "Edburga of the royal line of Mercia…was a venerable lady and after the decease of her husband, she remained many years a widow, even till her own death"[677]. According to Weir[678], she was perhaps the daughter of Cenwulf King of Mercia but the basis for this speculation is not known. m ÆTHELRED "Mucil" Ealdorman of the Gainas [in Mercia].]

2. CEOLWULF (-823 or after). "Celwall frater regis Kenulphi" subscribed a charter of "Kenulphus rex Merciorum" dated 806[679]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded his brother in 821[680] as CEOLWULF I King of Mercia. He continued his brother's invasions of Wales, destroying the fortress of Deganwy at the mouth of the river Conway and bringing the kingdom of Powys under their control in 822. William of Malmesbury records that he was deposed in 823 by Beornwulf[681]. m ---. The name of Ceolwulf's wife is not known. Ceolwulf & his wife had one child:

a) ÆLFFLÆD (-[839/40], bur Croyland Abbey). William of Malmesbury names "Elhfleda, daughter of Chelwulf" as the mother of "Wistan"[682]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the accession of "Wichtlaf duke of the Wiccii whose son Wymund had married Alfleda, the daughter of Ceolwulph the former king"[683], dating her marriage to before her father-in-law's accession. According to Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland, Ælflæd died soon after her husband[684]. m WIGMUND, son of WIGLAF King of Mercia (-before 849).

3. CUTHRED (-807). His brother Cenwulf King of Mercia installed him in 798 as CUTHRED King of Kent. His lack of autonomy in Kent is indicated by "Cuthredo fratre meo rege Cantuariorum" making a joint grant of land in Kent with "Coenulfus rex Merciorum" by charter dated 801[685], and "Coenulfi regis Merciorum" also subscribing three charters of "Cuthredus rex Cantiæ" dated 805[686]. After his death, Kent once more became a province of Mercia. m ---. The name of Cuthred's wife is not known. Cuthred & his wife had one child:

a) COENWALD (-811 or after). "Coenwaldi filii regis" subscribed a charter of "Cuthredus rex Cantiæ" dated 805[687]. "Coenwald propinquo regis" subscribed a charter of "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" dated 811[688].

The precise relationship between the following two individuals and the family set out above has not been established:

4. CYNEBERHT (-811 or after). "Cyneberht propinquo regis" subscribed the charter of "Coenwulf rex Merciorum" dated 811[689], his name listed directly after "Eadberht dux" and before "Coenwald propinquo regis", although there is no precise indication of his relationship to the king.

---

5. EANBERHT (-811 or after). "Eanberto consanguinitatis nostro communi propinquo" and "Eanberht dux" subscribed charters of Cenwulf King of Mercia dated 804 and 811[690], his name in the latter being listed directly after "Cyneberht propinquo regis" and before "Quoenthryth filia regis", although his precise relationship to the king has not been identified.

D. KINGS of MERCIA 823-877

BEORNWULF 823-825, LUDECA 825-827

BEORNWULF, son of --- (-killed in battle 825). William of Malmesbury records that he expelled King Ceolwulf I and usurped the throne in 823[691] as BEORNWULF King of Mercia. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the succession of "Bernulph, a foolish man, but remarkable for his wealth and influence, though in no way connected with the royal line"[692]. He was defeated by Ecgberht King of Wessex at Ellendun [=Wroughton, Wiltshire] in 825, marking the end of Mercia's ascendancy. Roger of Wendover records that "Bernulfus Merciorum rex" was killed "ab orientalibus Anglis" in 826[693]. William of Malmesbury records that he was killed in battle by the East Anglians, who had rebelled against him and sought King Ecgberht's protection[694].

LUDECA, son of --- (-murdered 827). A kinsman of Beornwulf, although the precise relationship is not known. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the succession of "Ludecan his kinsman" after the death of Beornwulf[695]. He succeeded in 825 as LUDECA King of Mercia, which by that time was reduced to Mercia itself, Lindsey, Middle Anglia and the provinces of the Hwicce and Magonsætan[696]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Ludeca king of Mercia…and his five ealdormen" were killed in 827[697].

WIGLAF 827-839, BEORHTWULF 839-851

Two brothers, parents not known:

1. WIGLAF (-839, bur Repton). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he succeeded in 827[698] as WIGLAF King of Mercia. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the accession of "Wichtlaf duke of the Wiccii"[699]. Ecgberht King of Wessex conquered Mercia and all its dependencies in 829[700], taking the title rex Merciorum, but in 830 lost control again to Wiglaf[701], who appears to have ruled without any Wessex overlordship for the rest of his life. "Uuiglaf rex Merciorum" granted land at Botwell, Middlesex to archbishop Wulfred by charter dated 831 [702]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the death of King Wiglaf "in the thirteenth year of his reign" and his burial at Repton monastery[703]. m CYNETHRYTH, daughter of ---. "Cynethryth regina" subscribed a charter of "Uuiglaf rex Merciorum" dated 831702. Wiglaf & his wife had one child:

a) WIGMUND (-before 839, bur Croyland Abbey). William of Malmesbury names "Wimund son of Wihtlaf king of the Mercians"[704]. "Wigmund filius regis" subscribed a charter of "Wiglaf rex Merciorum" dated 831[705]. According to Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland, Wigmund predeceased his father and was buried at Croyland abbey[706]. m (before 827) ÆLFFLÆD of Mercia, daughter of CEOLWULF King of Mercia & his wife --- (-[839/40], bur Croyland Abbey). Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the accession of "Wichtlaf duke of the Wiccii whose son Wymund had married Alfleda, the daughter of Ceolwulph the former king"[707], dating her marriage to before her father-in-law's accession. William of Malmesbury names "Elhfleda, daughter of Chelwulf" as the mother of "Wistan"[708]. According to Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland, Ælflæd died soon after her husband[709]. Wigmund & his wife had one child:

i) WIGSTAN (-killed Wistanstowe 25 May 849, bur Repton, later transferred to Evesham). William of Malmesbury names "Wistan" as son of "Wimund son of Wihtlaf king of the Mercians" & his wife[710]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that "Berfert his son [Beorhtwulf's]" killed "his kinsman the holy Wistan, son of Wimund, the son of king Wichtlaf and of Alfleda the daughter of Ceolwulph"[711]. Roger of Wendover records that "Bertferthus regis Merciorum filius…Berthwlfi" killed "cognatum suum sanctum Wlstanum…nepos duorum regum de regnum Merciorum" in 849 "in vigilia Pentecostes", adding that Wigstan was buried "ad monasterio…Rependuna…in mausoleo avi sui regis Wilafi"[712]. According to William of Malmesbury, he was murdered by Beorhtfrith because he had opposed Beorhtfrith's plan to marry his widowed mother[713], but this appears to be inaccurate if it is correct, as stated above, that Wigstan's mother died soon after his father. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that Wigstan was buried at Repton, but that his body was later transferred to Evesham[714].

2. BEORHTWULF (-852). Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records the accession of "his brother Bertulph" after the death of King Wiglaf, as tributary king of Æthelwulf King of Wessex[715]. His name suggests a relationship with Beorhtrich King of Wessex. He succeeded his brother in 839 as BEORHTWULF King of Mercia. "Beorhtwulf rex Merciorum" granted land in Worcestershire to Heahbert bishop of Worcester under two charters dated 840 [716]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he was driven to flight by a large Danish army in 851[717]. Roger of Wendover records the death in 852 of "Merciorum rex Bertulfus"[718]. m SAETHRYTH, daughter of ---. "Sethrith/Saethryth regina" subscribed two charters of "Beorhtwulf rex Merciorum" dated 840716. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Sæthryth" as wife of "Beorhtwlfus"[719]. Beorhtwulf & his wife had one child:

a) BEORHTRICH . "Berhtric filius regis" subscribed a charter of "Bertwlf rex Merciorum" dated 840[720]. Ingulph's Chronicle of the Abbey of Croyland records that "Berfert his son [Beorhtwulf's]" killed "his kinsman the holy Wistan, son of Wimund, the son of king Wichtlaf and of Alfleda the daughter of Ceolwulph"[721]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies record that "Berhtferthum", son of "Beorhtwlfus…[et] Sæthryth regina" killed "sanctum Wistanum"[722]. Roger of Wendover records that "Bertferthus regis Merciorum filius…Berthwlfi" killed "cognatum suum sanctum Wlstanum…nepos duorum regum de regnum Merciorum" in 849 "in vigilia Pentecostes"[723].

BURGHRED 852-874, CEOLWULF II 874-877

BURGHRED, son of --- (-Rome after 874, bur Rome, English church of St Mary[724]). Roger of Wendover records that "Burchredum" succeeded on the death of "Merciorum rex Bertulfus" in 852 and reigned for twenty-two years[725]. He succeeded in 852 as BURGHRED King of Mercia. He turned to Æthelwulf King of Wessex in 853 for help against the Britons of Wales[726]. "Burgred rex Mercensium" granted land to bishop Alhhun by charter dated 855[727]. Burghred, in alliance with his brothers-in-law Æthelred and Alfred of Wessex, gathered near Nottingham in 868 to fight the Danes but bought peace from them without fighting. "Burgred rex" granted land at Upthrop to Wulflaf by charter dated 869[728]. The Danish army moved on Repton in late 873, and King Burghred was forced out in 874. He left for Rome where he spent the rest of his life.

m (Chippenham 853) ÆTHELSWITH of Wessex, daughter of ÆTHELWULF King of Wessex & his [second] wife Osburga (-in Italy 888, bur Pavia). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that King Æthelwulf gave his (unnamed) daughter in marriage to King Burghred[729]. Asser records that in 853 after Easter King Æthelwulf "gave his daughter to Burhred king of the Mercians…at the royal vill of Chippenham"[730]. Her name is confirmed by the charter of "Burgred rex Mercensium" dated 855 subscribed by "Æthelswith regina"[731]. It is assumed that Æthelswith was her father's legitimate daughter by his wife Osburga, but this is not certain. She was most probably older than her brothers Æthelred and Alfred in view of her 853 marriage, although the possibility of an infant marriage cannot be excluded. She had no known children from whose birth dates one could calculate their mother's age. "Æthelswith regina" was co-grantor with King Burgred in a grant of land at Upthrop to Wulflaf dated 869[732]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 888 "ealdorman Beocca and queen Æthelswith who was king Alfred's sister took the alms of the West Saxons and of king Alfred to Rome", one manuscript specifying that she "passed away on the way to Rome", another that she was buried in Pavia[733].

CEOLWULF, son of --- (-after 877). A follower of Burghred, he succeeded in 874 as CEOLWULF II King of Mercia, William of Malmesbury specifying that he was a tributary king appointed by the Danes[734]. "Ceolwulf rex Merciorum" granted exemptions to Wærferth bishop of Worcester by charter dated 875[735]. In 877, the Danes divided Mercia, appropriating the northern part for division among themselves, leaving Ceolwulf with the other half. Nothing more is known of him after that date. There is no record of any subsequent king of Mercia.

E. RULERS of the HWICCE

1. EANFRITH . Ruler of the Hwicce. m ---. The name of Eanfrith´s wife is not known. Eanfrith & his wife had one child:

a) EAFE . Bede records that "regina…Eabae [provinciam Australium Saxonum]…filia Eanfridi fratris Ænheri" had been baptised (before her marriage to "rex gentis ipsius Aedilualch") in "sua…Huicciorum provincia"[736]. m ÆTHELWALH King of the South Saxons, son of --- (-[686/87]).

2. --- . Ruler of the Hwicce. m [--- of Mercia, daughter of PENDA King of Mercia & his wife Cynewise. A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex Historia quam mutiosumsi a D^o Garterio", suggests a family relationship between King Æthelred and the brothers Oswald and Osric, rulers of the Hwicce, when it records that "duo fratribus Osuualdo et Ostrico…regis…Athelredi ministries nepotibus" founded the monasteries of "Persora" and "Glovernia" respectively in [680][737]. The document is undated, but includes entries until the late-14th century, although it is not known what earlier sources provided for the basis for the earliest entries. It is not known whether "nepotibus" in this document should be translated as nephews, but if that is correct the mother of the two brothers would have been the daughter of King Penda. One possibility is that she was the same person as one of his known daughters Cyneburga, later wife of Alhfrith under-King of Deira, or Cyneswith. The name of her daughter, Kyneburga, also suggests a close family relationship with the kings of Mercia.] Three children:

a) OSWALD . "Ethelredus rex Merciorum" granted land at Gloucester to "duobus ministries meis nobillis generis in provincia Huicciorum, Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius in vicarium" by charter dated [671 for 679?], for the purposes of founding a minster[738]. The History of Gloucester St Peter records the grant of land by King Æthelred for the foundation of the monastery of St Peter at Gloucester to "in provincia Wicciorum duobus ministries suis nobilis generis Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius", to "Osrico trecentorum tributariorum in Gloucestreschire" (on which he founded "in civitate Gloucestriæ monasterium cœnobiale in honore Sancti Peteri Apostoli") and to "Oswaldo…trecentorum casatorum apud Persovere"[739]. A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex Historia quam mutiosumsi a D^o Garterio", suggests a family relationship between King Æthelred and the brothers when it records that "duo fratribus Osuualdo et Ostrico…regis…Athelredi ministries nepotibus" founded the monasteries of "Persora" and "Glovernia" respectively in [680][740]. The document is undated, but includes entries until the late-14th century, although it is not known what earlier sources provided for the basis for the earliest entries.

b) OSRIC (-[729/30]). "Ethelredus rex Merciorum" granted land at Gloucester to "duobus ministries meis nobillis generis in provincia Huicciorum, Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius in vicarium" by charter dated [671 for 679?], for the purposes of founding a minster[741]. The History of Gloucester St Peter records the grant of land by King Æthelred for the foundation of the monastery of St Peter at Gloucester to "in provincia Wicciorum duobus ministries suis nobilis generis Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius", to "Osrico trecentorum tributariorum in Gloucestreschire" and to "Oswaldo…trecentorum casatorum apud Persovere"[742]. A manuscript reproduced in Leland´s Collectanea, entitled "Ex Historia quam mutiosumsi a D^o Garterio", suggests a family relationship between King Æthelred and the brothers when it records that "duo fratribus Osuualdo et Ostrico…regis…Athelredi ministries nepotibus" founded the monasteries of "Persora" and "Glovernia" respectively in [680][743]. The document is undated, but includes entries until the late-14th century, although it is not known what earlier sources provided for the basis for the earliest entries. Ruler of the Hwicce. The History of Gloucester St Peter records that "Keneburgam sororem suam" died nineteen years before her brother[744].

c) KYNEBURGA (-[710]). The History of Gloucester St Peter records the founding of the monastery of St Peter at Gloucester by "Osrico" and the installation of "Keneburgam sororem suam" as first abbess, a later passage recording the consecration of "Kyneburga soror regis Osrici" as abbess and her death twenty-nine years later[745].

3. ORWALD . m ---. The name of Orwald´s wife is not known. Orwald & his wife had one child:

a) ADELMUND . The full text of the charter of "Ethelredus rex Merciorum", granting land to "in provincia Wicciorum duobus ministries suis nobilis generis Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius", records later donations by "Adelbadui rex" to "Adelmund filium Orwaldi cognatum eius" and by "subregulus Huicciorum Aldred"[746].

4. ALDRED . Ruler of the Hwicce. The full text of the charter of "Ethelredus rex Merciorum", granting land to "in provincia Wicciorum duobus ministries suis nobilis generis Osrico…et Oswaldo fratri eius", records later donations by "Adelbadui rex" to "Adelmund filium Orwaldi cognatum eius" and by "subregulus Huicciorum Aldred"[747].

Chapter 5. KINGS of NORTHUMBRIA

Bede names the three Germanic tribes which invaded Britain as "Saxonibus, Anglis, Iutis", adding that the Angles were ancestors of "Orientales Angli, Mediterranei Angli, Merci, tota Nordanhymbrorum progenies" (people of East Anglia, the Midland Angles, Mercians and Northumbrians)[748]. The kingdom of Northumbria was formed later than the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England, out of the two earlier kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia. The southern kingdom of Deira, based in the centre and east of Yorkshire, was named after "the Dere", an Anglian people who probably first settled along the tributaries of the river Humber, although Yorke suggests that the name was British and that both Deira and Bernicia were Celtic kingdoms or territories which were taken over by the Anglo-Saxons[749]. The Deirians appear to have reached York by 500, and eventually the kingdom covered the whole area north of the river Humber as far as the river Tyne[750]. The northern kingdom of Bernicia was based at Bamburgh on the Northumberland coast, named after an Anglian people "the Bernice" who extended their authority southwards from the far northern coastland. At its greatest extent, the kingdom of Bernicia controlled the area north of the river Tyne as far as the Firth of Forth[751]. Yorke suggests that the name "Northumbria" may have been invented by Bede and popularised through his Ecclesiastical History[752]. The history of the Northumbrian "core" dynastic period which, as suggested in the Introduction to this document lasted from 616 to 716, is well covered both by Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, only a single charter (dated 685) has survived for Northumbria, in contrast to the relative wealth of documentation for the kingdoms of Kent and Mercia. Few sources are available for Northumbria in the later 8th and 9th centuries so information on the later kings is sparse, the notable exception being the Chronicle of Symeon of Durham.

A. KINGS of DEIRA, KINGS of NORTHUMBRIA 617-633

In common with the founders of the other kingdoms, the Kings of Deira claimed descent from Woden, as set out in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[753]: "Woden/Wægdæg/Sigegar/Swebdæg/Sigegeat/Sæbald/Sæfugl/Westerflaca/Wilgisi/Uxfrea/Yffe". The version in Nennius's Historia Brittonum is different: "Woden/Beldeg…Brond/Siggar/Sigar/Zegulf/Soemil/Sguerthing/Giulglis/Ulfrea/Iffi"[754].

OSRIC 633-634, OSWINE 641-650

[YFFE, son of UXFREA.]

1. [ÆLLE (-588). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Ælle succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians" in 560, after the death of Ida King of Bernicia, and reigned thirty years, adding that he was the son of "Yffe, son of Uxfrea…"[755].]

- see below.

2. [ÆLFRIC. Bede names "patrui eius Aelfrici", referring to King Eadwine, when recording the succession of his son in "regnum Deirorum"[756]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names "Ælfric, Edwin's paternal uncle" as father of Osric"[757].]

a) OSRIC (-killed in battle summer 634). Bede records that, after King Eadwine was killed in 633, "filius patrui eius Aelfrici…Osric" succeeded in "regnum Deirorum"[758]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names Osric as son of "Ælfric, Edwin's paternal uncle" when recording that he was baptised by Paulinus Bishop of York and succeeded his cousin King Eadwine as OSRIC King of Deira in 634[759]. William of Malmesbury states that Osric later renounced Christianity[760]. Bede records that "rex Brettonum Ceadualla" killed "Osricum" [King of Deira] in the following summer, and ruled "provinciæ Nordanhymbrorum" for a year before also killing "Eanfridum" [King of Bernicia] who had visited Cadwallon to sue for peace[761]. m ---. The name of Osric's wife is not known. Osric & his wife had one child:

i) OSWINE (-murdered Ingethlingum [Gilling] 20 Aug 651). Bede records that "Osuini, de stirpe regis Aeduini…filium Osrici" shared the throne during the first years of King Oswiu´s reign, governing "provinciæ Derorum" for seven years, while Oswiu governed "Berniciorum provinciam"[762]. William of Malmesbury records that, on the death of Oswald King of Northumbria in 641, "Oswin the son of Osric" succeeded as OSWINE King of Deira[763]. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[764], Oswine succeeded as king of Deira in 644, but there is no explanation about who may have ruled Deira during the previous three years. Bede states that King Oswiu murdered Oswine "XIII Kal Sep" (year not stated), in the ninth year of his reign, in the house of "comitis Hunualdi", with whom Oswine had taken refuge, by the hands of "præfectum suum Ediluinum" at "Ingetlingum", where a monastery was later built to atone for the crime[765]. He dates this event to 651 in his general chronology[766]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that he was a "man of wonderful piety and devotion" and that he was murdered on the orders of Oswiu King of Bernicia[767]. The calendar of Echternach includes "XIII Kal Sep Osuini regis"[768].

ÆLLE 560-588

ÆLLE, son of YFFE (-588). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Ælle succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians" in 560, after the death of Ida King of Bernicia, and reigned thirty years, adding that he was the son of "Yffe, son of Uxfrea…"[769]. It is not clear whether Ælle succeeded to the whole of Bernicia[770] and whether the kingdom of Deira continued to exist during his reign as a separate entity. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the death of Ælle in 588, and that "Æthelric" [of Bernicia] reigned five years after him[771].

m ---. The name of King Ælle's wife is not known.

King Ælle had [three] children:

1. UCHA ([575/80]-). Her parentage and marriage are confirmed by Bede who records that her son "Osualdi" was "nepos Aeduini regis ex sorore Acha"[772]. William of Malmesbury names "Acca, the daughter of Alla, sister of Edwin" as the mother of King Æthelfrith's childen[773]. Ucha must have been several years older than her brother King Eadwine, assuming that the latter was indeed born in 585, which suggests that they may have had different mothers. According to Bede, her second son Oswald was born in [602/03]. m ÆTHELFRITH King of Bernicia [Northumbria], son of ÆTHELRIC King of Bernicia [Northumbria] & his wife --- (-killed in battle 616).

2. EADWINE (585-killed in battle Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster 12 Oct 633 or 634, bur Whitby Abbey). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Æthelfrith king of Northumbria" was killed by "Rædwald king of East Anglia" and that "Edwin son of Ælle" succeeded to the kingdom, adding that he "conquered all Britain except Kent alone, and drove out the princes, the sons of Æthelfrith"[774]. He succeeded in 617 as EADWINE King of Northumbria.

- see below.

3. [ ---.]

a) [HERERIC (-murdered [616]). Bede names "nepotis Eduini regis…Hererici" when recording the death of his daughter Hild[775]. This relationship seems chronologically unlikely if his daughter Hild was indeed aged 66 when she died, so born in [613/14]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Herericus" as son of "Eadfrith", son of King Eadwine[776], but this is clearly impossible. Stenton describes Hereric as the "son of an unnamed nephew of Eadwine", which also seems unlikely. According to the genealogy reproduced in Yorke, he was the brother of King Eadwine, although elsewhere the author refers to him as the nephew of King Eadwine[777]. Hereric was exiled to the British kingdom of Elmet during the reign of Æthelfrith King of Northumbria. Bede records that "Hereric" lived in banishment under "rege Brettonum Cerdice" where he was poisoned[778], identified by Stenton as Ceretic King of Elmet[779], the same author also suggesting that King Eadwine's conquest of Elmet was in revenge for his kinsman's death.] m BEORHTSWITH, daughter of ---. Bede names "Bregusuid" as mother of Abbess Hild[780]. Florence of Worcester´s genealogies name "Beorhtswitha" as wife of "Herericus"[781]. Hereric & his wife had two children:

i) HILD ([613/14]-17 Nov 680). Bede records that "religiosissima Christi famula Hild, abbatissa monasterii…Strenaeshalc" was "filia nepotis Eduini regis…Hererici"[782]. Bede names Hilda as the daughter of Hereric, nephew to King Edwin. She was baptised with Eadwine King of Northumbria at York in 627. She became a nun in 647, Aidan persuading her to follow her calling in England rather than follow her sister to France. First abbess of Heruteu (island of the hart) or Streoneshalh (later Whitby Abbey) 657. Bede records the death "XV Kal Dec" in 680 of "religiosissima Christi famula Hild, abbatissa monasterii…Strenaeshalc" aged 66[783].

ii) HERESWITH (-after [647]). Bede names "Hild…soror ipsius Heresuid, mater Alduulfi regis Orientalium Anglorum" when recording that she was living "Galliam…in monasterio Cale" to which her sister Hild was also planning to go[784]. According to the genealogy in the Anglian collection, the name of Hereswith's husband was Æthelric[785]. After being repudiated by her husband, she became a nun at the convent of Chelles near Paris in [647]. m (repudiated 647) ÆTHELHERE of the East Angles, son of ENNI of the East Angles (-killed in battle Winwæd near Leeds 654). He succeeded his brother in 654 as ÆTHELHERE King of the East Angles.

EADWINE 617-633

EADWINE, son of ÆLLE King of the Northumbrians & his wife --- (585-killed in battle Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster 14 Oct 633, bur Whitby Abbey). William of Malmesbury names "Edwin the son of Alla", commenting that he was "a youth of no mean worth"[786]. Bede records that "regis Aeduini" had been forced into exile with "Redualdum regem Anglorum" before he became king, where he was persecuted by "Aedilfrido", his predecessor in Northumbria, who tried to arrange his assassination[787]. He was forced into exile by his brother-in-law Æthelfrith King of Northumbria in Bernicia, living first in north Wales and later at the court of Rædwald King of the East Angles[788]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Æthelfrith king of Northumbria" was killed by "Rædwald king of East Anglia" and that "Edwin son of Ælle" succeeded to the kingdom, adding that he "conquered all Britain except Kent alone, and drove out the princes, the sons of Æthelfrith"[789]. He succeeded in 617 as EADWINE King of Northumbria. Bede names "Aeduini rex Nordanhymbrorum gentis" as fifth of the kings who had authority over the southern provinces, south of the river Humber, adding that he ruled over all peoples except "Cantuariis" and conquered "Meuanias Brettonum insulas…inter Hiberniam et Brittaniam"[790]. Bede records that "rege…Aeduino" was converted to Christianity by "Paulino"[791]. Bede records that, after promising his Christian second wife to respect her religion, King Eadwine prevaricated about his own baptism although Paulinus was ordained Bishop of York 21 Jul 625. Following admonitory letters from Pope Boniface V, Eadwine was finally baptised at York 12 Apr 627[792]. Bede records that "rege Occidentalium Saxonum…Cuichelmo" sent "sicarius…Eumer" to assassinate King Eadwine "primo die paschae iuxta amnem Deruuentionem"[793]. This event is dated to 626 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[794]. King Eadwine conquered the Isle of Man. He also conquered Anglesey and besieged Cadwallon King of Gwynedd in Priestholm off the eastern point of the island[795]. Bede records that "Caedualla rex Brettonum", helped by "Penda…de region genere Merciorum", rebelled against "Aeduini" who was killed in battle "IV Id Oct" in 633 at "Haethfelth", aged 48, adding that the rebels continued to govern the country with varying success for 22 years[796]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "Edwin" was killed in 633, manuscript E adding that he was killed "by Cadawallon and Penda at Hatfield Chase on 14 Oct"[797]. The calendar of Echternach includes "III Id Oct Aeduini regis"[798]. Bede records that the head of King Eadwine was brought to York and was taken to "ecclesiam beati apostolic Petri", a church whose construction the king had started but which was completed by his successor "Osuald"[799]. Bede records that "rex Osuiu…filiam suam Aelffledam…pater eius Osuiu et mater eius Aeanfled et pater matris eius Aeduini" were buried "in ecclesia sancti apostolic Petri" [later Whitby Abbey][800]. After his death, Northumbria reverted into its constituent parts of Deira and Bernicia. Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle both record that Paulinus fled to Kent where he was made Bishop of Rochester[801], triggering a major decline in the fledging church in Northumbria.

m firstly (before [616]) CWENBURH of Mercia, daughter of CEARL King of Mercia & his wife --- (-before [619/23]). Bede names "Quoenburga filia Cearli regis Merciorum" as mother of King Eadwine´s sons "Osfrid et Eadfrid" when recording their baptism with their father, adding that they had both been born during their father´s exile before his accession[802]. Eadwine´s marriage must presumably therefore be dated to before 616, which if correct indicates that the marriage took place before the accession of Cwenburh's father in Mercia.

m secondly ([619/23]) ÆTHELBERG Tate of Kent, daughter of ÆTHELBERHT King of Kent & his first wife Bertha of the Franks ([590]-after 633). Bede records that "rege…Aeduino" married "Aedilbergae filia Aedilberti regis…Tatae vocabatur" and that she was taken to Northumbria by Paulinus after he was ordained bishop by Archbishop Justus "XII Kal Aug" in 625[803]. This date is inconsistent with the correspondence of Pope Boniface V, who was Pope from 619 to 625, in particular the letter to Queen Æthelberg, quoted by Bede[804]. Bede records that "rege…Aeduino" was converted to Christianity by "Paulino"[805], which was written after the Pope learned of her brother's conversion and admonishing her husband for his continued non-conversion. The date range [619/23] for the marriage seems a safer hypothesis. Bede records that, after her husband was killed, Paulinus took "regina Aedilberge" to Kent by sea where they were received with honour by "Honorio archiepiscopo et rege Eadbaldo"[806]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the same event in 633[807].

King Eadwine & his first wife had two children:

1. OSFRITH ([before 616]-killed in battle Hatfield Chase, near Doncaster 14 Oct 633). Bede names "Quoenburga filia Cearli regis Merciorum" as mother of King Eadwine´s sons "Osfrid et Eadfrid" when recording their baptism with their father, adding that they had both been born during their father´s exile before his accession[808]. Bede records that "unus filius eius Osfrid" was killed in battle "IV Id Oct" in 633 at "Haethfelth" with his father